EEET2254 Lecture 2

EEET2254 Communication Engineering Communication Engineering Fundamentals
Lecturer: Dr Katrina Neville
Overview
Review of signal power, signal energy, Fourier series, Fourier transforms and Laplace transform Signal propagation Channel effects Introduction to noise
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EEET2254 Communication Engineering
Communication Engineering
A primary aim of communication engineering is the reliable transmission of information from a transmitter, through a channel and to a receiver. The information can be represented as a function of time called a signal.
Noise
Transmitter
Transmission Media Distance
Receiver
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Examples of Communications Signals

Speech or music after conversion to electrical signals through a microphone. Video signals. Sounds of animals or natural phenomena transmitted from a sensor to a remote research station. Brain (EEG), heart (ECG), or eye (EOG) signals (after conversion to electrical signals through sensors) transmitted from the patient during a test or a medical tele-operation. Photos sent from a satellite or spacecraft. A radar signal reflecting from a flying object.
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Types of Signals
Analogue signals are continuous in both time and amplitude Examples are voice, music, video, etc.
Digital signals have a finite set of values for both time and amplitude They are represented in binary form (sequence of 1s and 0s)
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Time Domain Representation

A signal can be regarded as a function of time or frequency, for example:
1 1 s (t ) ! sin( 2Tft ) sin(3(2Tf )t ) sin(5(2Tf )t ) 5 3

Can be represented in time as shown below:
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Frequency Domain Representation

This same signal can be represented in frequency as:
1 1 s( t ) ! sin 2Tft sin 3( 2Tf ) t sin 5( 2Tf ) t 3 5

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Wired Communication Channels

In wired communications signal transmission generally occurs over a copper wire, coaxial cable, waveguide or optical fibre channel. Examples of systems that employ this method are:
The public switched telephone network (PSTN) Wired Internet (ADSL, dial-up, etc) Computer networks (Ethernet) Optical fibre links
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Wireless Communications
In recent times wireless communications has become more popular. In wireless communications the channel used is free-space or the atmosphere. Examples of systems that employ this method are:
Mobile telephone networks (GSM, CDMA, 3G, etc) Wireless Internet Bluetooth Television and radio broadcasting
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The Electromagnetic Spectrum
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Signal Power and Energy

Instantaneous power p (t ) can be defined as the power dissipated over a 1; resistor by a voltage of amplitude of x(t ) . This is given as: 2
p(t ) !| x(t ) |
Since power is defined as the time average of energy the instantaneous energy of a signal is given by:
e (t ) ! x (t )
T /2
dt
Therefore the total normalised energy is given as:
E ! lim
T pg
x 2 (t )dt
T / 2
and average normalised power as: T /2 1 P ! lim x 2 (t )dt T T T/ 2

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Power and Energy Signals

Signals can be power signals, energy signals or neither. Power signals are signals where the normalised average power is finite and non-zero (i.e. 0 P g ). Similarly a signal is an energy signal if its total normalised energy is finite and non-zero (i.e. 0 E g ). And signals that have both infinite energy and infinite power cannot be classified as either energy or power signals, one example is an exponential waveform (e.g. x(t ) ! e t ) .
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Example 2.1
Determine whether x(t ) ! A. cos( 2Tt ) is a power or energy signal (or neither).
Determine whether x(t ) ! u (t )e t is a power or energy signal (or neither).
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Example 2.1 - Power in Periodic Signals

The energy of x(t ) ! A. cos( 2Tt ) is shown by the shaded region in the figure:
From this it can be seen as T p g this signal will have infinite energy.
A2t A2 sin( 4Tt ) E ! lim x (t )dt ! A cos (2Tt )dt ! ! g as T p g T pg 2 8T T / 2 g

g 2 2 2
T /2
Example 2.1 - Power in Periodic Signals

As power is the time average of energy and the signal is periodic, we can take the energy over a single period of this signal: T ( !1)
A2t A2 sin( 4Tt ) 1 P ! lim x 2 (t )dt ! A2 cos 2 (2Tt )dt ! T T p g T / 2 2 8T 0 0

T /2 T
A2 A2 This value is finite therefore ! 0 ?0 0A! x(t) is a power signal 2 2
A2 2
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Example 2.1 - Energy Signals

The energy of x(t ) ! u (t )e t is shown by the shaded region in the figure:
In this case as T p g this signal will have finite energy.
1 2t 2 2 2t E ! lim u (t ) x (t ) dt ! e dt ! e T pg 2 0 T / 2 0 1 1 1 ! v 0 v1 ! as T p g 2 2 2
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T /2
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Example 2.1 - Energy Signals

The power of this (non-periodic) signal can similarly be calculated as:
1 1 2t 1 2 2 P ! lim u (t ) x (t )dt ! e dt ! T T p g T / 2 T 0 T
T /2
1 2t 2 e 0
T ( !g )
! 0 as T p g
This value is zero therefore x(t) is an energy signal
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Time & Frequency Domains of Signals and Systems

There are two approaches to analysing signals and systems: the time domain approach and the frequency domain approach. The two domains are equivalent, connected by a suitable transformation (like the Fourier or Laplace transforms).
1 1 s (t ) ! sin( 2Tft ) sin( 3( 2Tf )t ) sin( 5( 2Tf )t ) 3 5

Transforms for Time & Frequency Domains

The most important transformations in applied sciences are:
Fourier Transform: which is a transformation from the time domain to the frequency domain. Laplace Transform: which is a transformation from the time domain to the generalized (complex) frequency domain.
The Fourier transform of a signal is normally referred to as the spectrum of the signal (as it describes the frequency spectrum of the signal). Fourier series is a specific representation that is used only for periodic signals.
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Fourier Series Representation of Periodic Signals

Periodic signals (signals that repeat every T0 secs) can be represented by the sum of sinusoids and/or co-sinusoids. The Fourier series (FS) is used to decompose these periodic time signals into their sine and cosine components. The frequencies of these functions are multiples of the fundamental frequency of the signal, f 0 ! 1 / T0 .
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Fourier Series Representation of Periodic Signals

The Fourier series can be represented in either the trigonometric or exponential (complex) forms. The trigonometric Fourier series is given as:
g
x(t ) ! ao an cos( 2Tnf 0t ) bn sin( 2Tnf 0t ), [n ! 0,1,2,...]

n !1
Where:
2T [0 ! 2Tf 0 ! T0 2 an ! T0
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1 a0 ! T0
0
T0
x(t )dt
0 0
T0
x(t ) cos(n[ t )dt

0
2 bn ! T0
T0
x(t ) sin(n[ t )dt

0
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The Exponential (Complex) Fourier Series

Using Eulers formula, we can obtain the exponential or complex Fourier series from the trigonometric series. Eulers formula: e s jU ! cos U s j sin U
g
Resulting in: x (t ) ! Where: X k !
k ! g
X k e j 2Tkf 0t ,
[k ! 0,1,2,...]
1 T0
T0
x (t )e j 2Tkf 0t dt
0
Note that although the Fourier series reveals the frequency content of the signal, it is not exactly a frequency transform as the representation is still in the time domain.
The Fourier Transform

The Fourier Series (FS) only applies to periodic signals with a period T0 and a fundamental frequency f 0 ! 1 / T0 . As T0 approaches infinity the signal becomes non-periodic and its FS will tend to the Fourier transform (FT) The FT is normally defined as the Fourier transform pair since the time signal can be obtained from the frequency spectrum by the inverse transformation:
g
X ( f ) ! F { x (t )} !
x (t ) ! F 1{ X ( f )} !
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x (t )e j 2Tft dt
g g
X ( f )e j 2Tft df
g
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The Fourier Transform

By expressing in terms of frequency, ( f ) instead of time, (t ) the Fourier transform (FT) reveals:
the frequency content of a signal, (its spectrum), or the frequency behavior of a system, known as the transfer function or frequency response.
The Fourier transform generally complex.
( f ) of the real time signal x(t ) is
It is normally plotted as magnitude | ( f ) | vs. frequency f (magnitude spectrum) and phase ( f ) vs. frequency f (phase spectrum). For systems, these quantities are called the magnitude response and the phase response.
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Example 2.2
Find the Fourier transform of the following functions:
x(t ) ! H (t )
x(t ) ! 4 T (t )
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Example 2.2 FT of a Delta Function

The Fourier transform of a delta function is:
g
x(t ) ! H (t )
( f ) ! {H (t )} ! H (t )e j 2Tft dt
g
Since (from the definition of a delta function):

g
H (t ) x(t )dt ! x(0)

g
X ( f ) !1
The Fourier transform is:
( f ) ! {H (t )} ! e j 2Tf v0 ! e 0 ! 1
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Example 2.2 FT of a Square Pulse

The Fourier transform of a square pulse is:
g
x(t ) ! 4 T (t )
X ( f ) ! F {4 T (t )} !
4 T (t )e j 2Tft dt
g
As the square pulse is equal to 1 between T/2 and +T/2 and zero elsewhere, this can be rewritten:
X ( f ) ! T .sinc( fT )
T /2
X(f ) !
e
T / 2
j 2Tft
1 dt ! e j 2Tft j 2Tf
T /2
T / 2
1 e jTfT e jTfT sin(TfT ) ! ! ! T .sinc ( fT ) 2j Tf Tf
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Properties of the FT
Duality: Means that the time and frequency variables can be swapped and no change will occur to the resulting FT/FS function. i.e. from the previous example 1 we proved that:
4 T (t ) n p Tsinc ( fT )
Therefore by duality we can also have:
Bsinc ( Bt ) n F 4 B ( f ) p
And from the previous example 2 we proved that:
H (t ) n F 1 p
Therefore by duality we can also have:
1n F H ( f ) p
Time Shift
x(t to ) n p X ( f )e
F
j 2Tft o
Frequency Shift
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Modulation of Signals
1 F 1 x (t ) cos( 2Tf 0t ) np X ( f f 0 ) X ( f f 0 ) 2 2
This is one of the most significant properties of FT to communication engineering. The whole signal spectrum X(f) is split into two shifted and scaled versions
X (f) M o d u latio n b y co s ( [o t ) f, H z 0
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0.5 X ( f + f o )
0.5 X ( f - f o )
f, H z -f o 0 fo
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Time Convolution
F x(t ) * y (t ) np ( f )Y ( f )
Frequency Convolution
F x(t ) y (t ) np ( f ) * Y ( f )
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Fourier Transforms of Sinusoids

Using the modulation property of the FT
1 F 1 x (t ) cos( 2Tf 0t ) np X ( f f 0 ) X ( f f 0 ) 2 2
F where x(t ) ! 1 and 1 np H ( f )
1 1 FT {cos( 2Tf 0t )} ! H ( f f 0 ) H ( f f 0 ) 2 2
Similarly
1 FT {sin( 2Tf 0t )} ! [H ( f f 0 ) H ( f f 0 )] 2j
Hence, the magnitude spectra of sin([0t ) and cos([0t ) are identical
The Laplace Transform

The Laplace Transform (LT) is a generalisation of the Fourier transform
g
X ( s ) ! L_ (t )a! x(t )e st dt x
0
1 1 x (t ) ! L1_X ( s )a! X ( s )e st ds 2Tj W 1 jg

The Laplace transform can be particularly useful in solving linear ordinary differential equations, such as those arising in the analysis of electronic circuits LT is the main tool in analysing analog (continuous-time) feedback systems where stability is of extreme importance
W jg
A General Digital Communication System

Shown is a block diagram of a general digital communication system. It is relevant for both baseband communications and RF communications.
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Signal Propagation and Transmission Media

All communication systems involve the transmission of information through a transmission medium. A transmission medium can be either wired or wireless and all transmission media have certain characteristics that need to be considered when designing a communication system. In wireless communication channels there are many things that can affect the propagation of a radio wave and many techniques that can be used to get a signal from a transmitter to a receiver. Radio waves are affected by the same phenomena as lightwaves, i.e. diffraction, reflection, refraction, absorption and destructive/constructive interference.
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Signal Propagation in Wireless Channels

Ground-wave propagation: This is generally a technique used for low frequency signals (< 2 MHz or MF band and below). Low frequency signals are better able to diffract, or bend, around objects. This characteristic means these types of signals will bend and follow the Earths curvature. This phenomena is taken advantage of for AM radio transmission to allow long distance reception.
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Ionospheric propagation: This phenomena is utilised in the transmission of signals between 2 30 MHz (or the HF band). This phenomena occurs due to the changes in refractive index between the different layers of the atmosphere. Effectively the signal is bounced off the ionosphere in a zig-zag pattern to reach the receiver and is often used in amateur radio and international broadcasting.
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Line-of-sight propagation (LOS): This type of transmission is generally used for signals of high frequency (> 30 MHz or VHF band and above) As its name suggests, the transmitter and receiver are located in direct line to each other. Television, mobile phone and microwave signals are some signals that need to be transmitted via the LOS method.
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Multipath Scattering
Apart from signal propagation techniques, other natural phenomena can effect the transmission of data. Multipath scattering is a problem that is prominent in wireless communications. This phenomena occurs when a signal is scattered off objects in a transmission medium (such as trees or buildings). This causes a signal to arrive at a receiver at different times via several different paths.
In television reception, multipath scattering can cause ghosting to occur to a picture. Ghosting is very disruptive to an image with multiple, spatially offset ghost images appearing on the screen. The image (right) has been affected by severe multipath scattering.
Lena image after being transmitted though a wireless channel with three multipaths
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In semester 1 we looked at FIR filtering of signals. A multipath channel can be represented with a similar structure to an FIR filter. Below is a block diagram showing a representation of a multipath channel with two paths.
td t d (t
E
is the time delay of the first (direct) path is the time delay of the second (scattered ) path is the attenuatio n of the signal on the scattered path
EEET2254 Communication Engineering 41
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Just like an FIR filter we can derive an impulse response and a frequency response that will represent this channel.
h(t ) ! H (t t d ) EH (t (t d (t )) H ( f ) ! e j 2Tft d Ee j 2Tf ( td (t )
Impulse response of the channel
! e j 2Tft d ? E cos( 2Tf(t ) jE sin( 2Tf(t )A 1

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Frequency response of channel

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The Doppler Effect

Another phenomena in wireless communication is the Doppler effect. Doppler effect is caused by motion of a transmitter and/or receiver. Like sound, received RF frequencies can appear to change depending on whether the transmitter is moving towards or away from the receiver. Think of the sound of a moving ambulance as it passes by.
The Doppler Effect

As a transmitter is moving toward the receiver the frequency will appear at the receiver to be of higher frequency. As the transmitter moves away from the receiver the frequency will be perceived as of lower frequency.
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Noise
Noise is another type of distortion that can effect a transmitted signal The most important kind of noise encountered in communication systems can be formulated as additive white noise. This type of noise can be caused by naturally occurring factors such as solar radiation from the sun and thermal noise from heat sources. Noise can also be generated by proximity to other electrical sources.
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Additive White Noise

Additive white noise has a constant 2-sided power spectral density (PSD) for all frequencies The name white indicates the inclusion of all frequencies (analogous to white light including all the colours of a rainbow). Theoretically, this means infinite noise power. However, in practice all channels are band limited (i.e. they pass a certain range of frequencies). Communication systems use BPFs to filter out the expected information signal, centred at the carrier frequency, immediately after RF stage.
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Signal-to-Noise Ratio
In analogue communication systems, performance evaluation is generally based on the estimation of the received signal-tonoise ratio (SNR) SNR = Signal power / Noise power SNR in Baseband Transmission If there is no modulation (e.g., in short-range transmission), we call the SNR baseband SNR (SNRb)
Lena image with Additive White Noise. (Signal-to-noise ratio increasing from left to right)
Finally
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EEET2254 Lecture 2

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EEET2254 Communication Engineering Communication Engineering Fundamentals

Lecturer: Dr Katrina Neville

EEET2254 Communication Engineering

Transmission Media Distance

EEET2254 Communication Engineering

Examples of Communications Signals

EEET2254 Communication Engineering

EEET2254 Communication Engineering

Time Domain Representation

1 1 s (t ) ! sin( 2Tft )  sin(3(2Tf )t )  sin(5(2Tf )t ) 5 3

EEET2254 Communication Engineering

Frequency Domain Representation

1 1 s( t ) ! sin 2Tft  sin 3( 2Tf ) t  sin 5( 2Tf ) t 3 5

Wired Communication Channels

EEET2254 Communication Engineering

EEET2254 Communication Engineering

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

EEET2254 Communication Engineering

Signal Power and Energy

Therefore the total normalised energy is given as:

and average normalised power as: T /2 1 P ! lim x 2 (t )dt T T T/ 2

Power and Energy Signals

EEET2254 Communication Engineering

Determine whether x(t ) ! u (t )e t is a power or energy signal (or neither).

EEET2254 Communication Engineering

Example 2.1 - Power in Periodic Signals

A2t A2 sin( 4Tt ) E ! lim x (t )dt ! A cos (2Tt )dt !  ! g as T p g T pg 2 8T T / 2 g

Example 2.1 - Power in Periodic Signals

A2t A2 sin( 4Tt ) 1 P ! lim x 2 (t )dt ! A2 cos 2 (2Tt )dt !  T T p g T / 2 2 8T 0 0

A2 A2 This value is finite therefore !  0  ?0  0A! x(t) is a power signal 2 2

EEET2254 Communication Engineering

Example 2.1 - Energy Signals

In this case as T p g this signal will have finite energy.

Example 2.1 - Energy Signals

This value is zero therefore x(t) is an energy signal

EEET2254 Communication Engineering

Time & Frequency Domains of Signals and Systems

1 1 s (t ) ! sin( 2Tft )  sin( 3( 2Tf )t )  sin( 5( 2Tf )t ) 3 5

Transforms for Time & Frequency Domains

EEET2254 Communication Engineering

Fourier Series Representation of Periodic Signals

EEET2254 Communication Engineering

Fourier Series Representation of Periodic Signals

x(t ) ! ao  an cos( 2Tnf 0t )  bn sin( 2Tnf 0t ), [n ! 0,1,2,...]

x(t ) cos(n[ t )dt

x(t ) sin(n[ t )dt

EEET2254 Communication Engineering

The Exponential (Complex) Fourier Series

Resulting in: x (t ) ! Where: X k !

The Fourier Transform

EEET2254 Communication Engineering

The Fourier Transform

The Fourier transform generally complex.

( f ) of the real time signal x(t ) is

EEET2254 Communication Engineering

EEET2254 Communication Engineering

Example 2.2 FT of a Delta Function

Since (from the definition of a delta function):

H (t ) x(t )dt ! x(0)

The Fourier transform is:

EEET2254 Communication Engineering

Example 2.2 FT of a Square Pulse

1 1 s (t ) ! sin( 2Tft ) sin(3(2Tf )t ) sin(5(2Tf )t ) 5 3

1 1 s( t ) ! sin 2Tft sin 3( 2Tf ) t sin 5( 2Tf ) t 3 5

A2t A2 sin( 4Tt ) E ! lim x (t )dt ! A cos (2Tt )dt ! ! g as T p g T pg 2 8T T / 2 g

A2t A2 sin( 4Tt ) 1 P ! lim x 2 (t )dt ! A2 cos 2 (2Tt )dt ! T T p g T / 2 2 8T 0 0

A2 A2 This value is finite therefore ! 0 ?0 0A! x(t) is a power signal 2 2

1 1 s (t ) ! sin( 2Tft ) sin( 3( 2Tf )t ) sin( 5( 2Tf )t ) 3 5

x(t ) ! ao an cos( 2Tnf 0t ) bn sin( 2Tnf 0t ), [n ! 0,1,2,...]

1 e jTfT e jTfT sin(TfT ) ! ! ! T .sinc ( fT ) 2j Tf Tf

1 1 x (t ) ! L1_X ( s )a! X ( s )e st ds 2Tj W 1 jg

h(t ) ! H (t t d ) EH (t (t d (t )) H ( f ) ! e j 2Tft d Ee j 2Tf ( td (t )

! e j 2Tft d ? E cos( 2Tf(t ) jE sin( 2Tf(t )A 1