Chapter 30

Plant Diversity II: The Evolution of Seed Plants

PowerPoint Lectures for Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece

Lectures by Chris Romero

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Overview: Feeding the World

Seeds changed the course of plant evolution, enabling their bearers to become the dominant producers in most terrestrial ecosystems

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Concept 30.1: The reduced gametophytes of seed plants are protected in ovules and pollen grains
In addition to seeds, the following are common to all seed plants: Reduced gametophytes Heterospory Ovules Pollen

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Advantages of Reduced Gametophytes

The gametophytes of seed plants develop within the walls of spores retained within tissues of the parent sporophyte

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

LE 30-2
Sporophyte (2n) Sporophyte (2n)

Gametophyte (n)

Gametophyte (n)

Sporophyte dependent on gametophyte (mosses and other bryophytes)

Large sporophyte and small, independent gametophyte (ferns and other seedless vascular plants)

Microscopic female gametophytes (n) in ovulate cones (dependent)

Sporophyte (2n), the flowering plant (independent) Microscopic male gametophytes (n) in inside these parts of flowers (dependent)

Microscopic male gametophytes (n) in pollen cones (dependent) Sporophyte (2n), (independent)

Microscopic female gametophytes (n) in inside these parts of flowers (dependent)

Reduced gametophyte dependent on sporophyte (seed plants: gymnosperms and angiosperms)

Heterospory: The Rule Among Seed Plants

Seed plants evolved from plants with megasporangia, which produce megaspores that give rise to female gametophytes Seed plants evolved from plants with microsporangia, which produce microspores that give rise to male gametophytes

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Ovules and Production of Eggs

An ovule consists of a megasporangium, megaspore, and one or more protective integuments Gymnosperm megaspores have one integument Angiosperm megaspores usually have two integuments

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LE 30-3

Integument Spore wall

Female gametophyte (n) Egg nucleus (n)

Seed coat (derived from integument) Food supply (female gametophyte tissue) (n) Embryo (2n) (new sporophyte) Gymnosperm seed

Megasporangium (2n) Megaspore (n) Unfertilized ovule

Male gametophyte (within germinating pollen grain) (n) Micropyle Fertilized ovule

Discharged sperm nucleus (n) Pollen grain (n)

Pollen and Production of Sperm

Microspores develop into pollen grains, which contain the male gametophytes Pollination is the transfer of pollen to the part of a seed plant containing the ovules Pollen can be dispersed by air or animals, eliminating the water requirement for fertilization If a pollen grain germinates, it gives rise to a pollen tube that discharges two sperm into the female gametophyte within the ovule
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The Evolutionary Advantage of Seeds

A seed develops from the whole ovule A seed is a sporophyte embryo, along with its food supply, packaged in a protective coat

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Concept 30.2: Gymnosperms bear naked seeds, typically on cones

The gymnosperms include four phyla: Cycadophyta (cycads) Gingkophyta (one living species: Ginkgo biloba) Gnetophyta (three genera: Gnetum, Ephedra, Welwitschia) Coniferophyta (conifers, such as pine, fir, and redwood)

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

LE 30-4aa

Cycas revoluta

LE 30-4ab

LE 30-4ac

LE 30-4ad

Gnetum. This genus includes about 35 species of tropical trees, shrubs, and vines, mainly native to Africa and Asia. Their leaves look similar to those of flowering plants, and their seeds look somewhat like fruits.

LE 30-4ae

Ephedra. This genus includes about 40 species that inhabit arid regions throughout the world. Known in North America as Mormon tea, these desert shrubs produce the compound ephedrine, commonly used as a decongestant.

LE 30-4af

Welwitschia. This genus consists of one species Welwitschia mirabilis, a plant that lives only in the deserts of southwestern Africa. Its strap like leaves are among the largest known.

LE 30-4ag

Ovulate cones

LE 30-4ba

Douglas fir. Doug fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) provides more timber than any other North American tree species. Some uses include house framing, plywood, pulpwood for paper, railroad ties, and boxes and crates.

LE 30-4bb

Pacific yew. The bark of Pacific yew (Taxa brevifolia) is a source of taxol, a compound used to treat women with ovarian cancer. The leaves of a European yew species produce a similar compound, which can be harvested without destroying the plants. Pharmaceutical companies are now refining techniques for synthesizing drugs with taxol-like properties.

LE 30-4bc

Bristlecone pine. This species (Pinus longaeva), which is found in the White Mountains of California, includes some of the oldest living organisms, reaching ages of more than 4,600 years. One tree (not shown here) is called Methuselah because it may be the worlds oldest living tree. In order to protect the tree, scientists keep its location a secret.

LE 30-4bd

Sequoia. This giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum), in Californias Sequoia National Park weighs about 2,500 metric tons, equivalent to about 24 blue whales (the largest animals), or 40,000 people. Giant sequoias are the largest living organisms and also some of the most ancient, with some estimated to be between 1,800 and 2,700 years old. Their cousins, the coast redwoods (Sequoia sempervirens), grow to heights of more than 110 meters (taller than the Statue of Liberty) and are found only in a narrow coastal strip of northern California.

LE 30-4be

Common juniper. The berries of the common juniper (Juniperus communis), are actually ovuleproducing cones consisting of fleshy sporophylls.

LE 30-4bf

Wollemia pine. Survivors of a confer group once known only from fossils, living Wollemia pines (Wollemia nobilis), were discovered in 1994 in a national park only 150 kilometers from Sydney, Australia. The species consists of just 40 known individuals two small groves. The inset photo compares the leaves of this living fossil with actual fossils.

Gymnosperm Evolution
Fossil evidence reveals that by the late Devonian period some plants, called progymnosperms, had begun to acquire some adaptations that characterize seed plants

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Gymnosperms appear early in the fossil record and dominated the Mesozoic terrestrial ecosystems Living seed plants can be divided into two clades: gymnosperms and angiosperms

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A Closer Look at the Life Cycle of a Pine

Key features of the gymnosperm life cycle: Dominance of the sporophyte generation Development of seeds from fertilized ovules The transfer of sperm to ovules by pollen The life cycle of a pine is an example

Animation: Pine Life Cycle

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LE 30-6_3
Key Haploid (n) Diploid (2n) Ovule

Ovulate cone

Megasporocyte (2n) Integument Longitudinal Micropyle section of ovulate cone Megasporangium

Pollen cone Mature sporophyte (2n)

Microsporocytes (2n)

MEIOSIS Longitudinal section of pollen cone Sporophyll Microsporangium

Germinating Pollen pollen grain grains (n) MEIOSIS (containing male gametophytes) Surviving megaspore (n)

Seedling Germinating pollen grain Archegonium Egg (n) Seeds on surface of ovulate scale Female gametophyte Germinating pollen grain (n) Food reserves Seed coat (gametophyte (derived from Discharged tissue) (n) sperm nucleus (n) parent sporophyte) (2n) Pollen tube Integument

Embryo (new sporophyte) (2n)

FERTILIZATION

Egg nucleus (n)

Concept 30.3: The reproductive adaptations of angiosperms include flowers and fruits
Angiosperms are flowering plants These seed plants have reproductive structures called flowers and fruits They are the most widespread and diverse of all plants

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Characteristics of Angiosperms
All angiosperms are classified in a single phylum, Anthophyta The name comes from the Greek anthos, flower

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Flowers
The flower is an angiosperm structure specialized for sexual reproduction A flower is a specialized shoot with up to four types of modified leaves: Sepals, which enclose the flower Petals, which are brightly colored and attract pollinators Stamens, which produce pollen Carpels, which produce ovules
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LE 30-7

Stigma Stamen Anther Style

Carpel

Filament

Ovary

Petal Sepal Ovule Receptacle

Video: Flower Blooming (time lapse)

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Fruits
A fruit typically consists of a mature ovary but can also include other flower parts Fruits protect seeds and aid in their dispersal Mature fruits can be either fleshy or dry

Animation: Fruit Development

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LE 30-8
Tomato, a fleshy fruit with soft outer and inner layers of pericarp

Ruby grapefruit, a fleshy fruit with a hard outer layer and soft inner layer of pericarp

Nectarine, a fleshy fruit with a soft outer layer and hard inner layer (pit) of pericarp

Milkweed, a dry fruit that splits open at maturity

Walnut, a dry fruit that remains closed at maturity

 Various fruit adaptations help disperse seeds Seeds can be carried by wind, water, or animals to new locations

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LE 30-9 Wings enable maple fruits to be easily carried by the wind.

Seeds within berries and other edible fruits are often dispersed in animal feces.

The barbs of cockleburs facilitate seed dispersal by allowing these fruits to hitchhike on animals.

The Angiosperm Life Cycle

In the angiosperm life cycle, double fertilization occurs when a pollen tube discharges two sperm into the female gametophyte within an ovule One sperm fertilizes the egg, while the other combines with two nuclei in the central cell of the female gametophyte and initiates development of food-storing endosperm The endosperm nourishes the developing embryo

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

LE 30-10a
Key Haploid (n) Diploid (2n) Anther Mature flower on Sporophyte plant (2n) Microsporangium Microsporocytes (2n) MEIOSIS Microspore (n) Ovule with megasporangium (2n) Male Generative cell Tube cell

Ovary MEIOSIS

gametophyte (in pollen grain)

Megasporangium (n) Surviving megaspore (n)

Female gametophyte (embryo sac)

Antipodal cells Polar nuclei Synergids Eggs (n)

Pollen tube Sperm (n)

LE 30-10b
Key Haploid (n) Diploid (2n) Microsporangium Microsporocytes (2n) MEIOSIS

Anther Mature flower on sporophyte plant (2n)

Ovary

Microspore (n) Ovule with megasporangium (2n) Male gametophyte (in pollen grain) MEIOSIS

Generative cell Tube cell

Pollen grains

Stigma Pollen Megasporangium tube (n) Sperm Surviving megaspore (n) Pollen tube Style Antipodal cells Female gametophyte Polar nuclei (embryo sac) Synergids Eggs (n) Eggs nucleus (n) Pollen tube Sperm (n)

Discharged sperm nuclei (n)

LE 30-10c
Key Haploid (n) Diploid (2n) Microsporangium Microsporocytes (2n) MEIOSIS

Anther Mature flower on sporophyte plant (2n)

Ovary Germinating seed

Microspore (n) Ovule with megasporangium (2n) Male gametophyte (in pollen grain) MEIOSIS

Generative cell Tube cell

Pollen grains

Stigma Pollen Megasporangium tube (n) Sperm Surviving megaspore (n) Pollen tube Style Antipodal cells Female gametophyte Polar nuclei (embryo sac) Synergids Eggs (n) Nucleus of developing endosperm (3n) Zygote (2n) Eggs nucleus (n) FERTILIZATION Pollen tube Sperm (n)

Embryo (2n) Endosperm (food supply) (3n) Seed coat (2n)

Seed

Discharged sperm nuclei (n)

Animation: Plant Fertilization Animation: Seed Development Video: Flowering Plant Life Cycle (time lapse)

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Angiosperm Evolution
Clarifying the origin and diversification of angiosperms poses fascinating challenges to evolutionary biologists Angiosperms originated at least 140 million years ago During the late Mesozoic, the major branches of the clade diverged from their common ancestor

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Fossil Angiosperms
Primitive fossils of 125-million-year-old angiosperms display derived and primitive traits Archaefructus sinensis, for example, has anthers and seeds but lacks petals and sepals

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LE 30-11

Carpel Stamen

5 cm Archaefructus sinensis, a 125-million-year-old fossil

Artists reconstruction of Archaefructus sinensis

An Evo-Devo Hypothesis of Flower Origins

Scientist Michael Frohlich hypothesized how pollen-producing and ovule-producing structures were combined into a single flower He proposed that the ancestor of angiosperms had separate pollen-producing and ovule-producing structures

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Angiosperm Diversity
The two main groups of angiosperms are monocots and eudicots Basal angiosperms are less derived and include the flowering plants belonging to the oldest lineages Magnoliids share some traits with basal angiosperms but are more closely related to monocots and eudicots

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

LE 30-12aa

BASAL ANGIOSPERMS

Amborella trichopoda

Water lily (Nymphaea Rene Gerald)

Star anise (Illicium floridanum)

LE 30-12ab

HYPOTHETICAL TREE OF FLOWERING PLANTS

Amborella

Water lilies

Monocots

Southern magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora)

Star anise and relatives

MAGNOLIIDS

Magnoliids

Eudicots

LE 30-12ba

MONOCOTS
Orchid Monocot (Lemboglossum Characteristics rossii) Embryos Eudicot Characteristics

EUDICOTS
California poppy (Eschscholzia california)

One cotyledon

Two cotyledons

LE 30-12bb

MONOCOTS

EUDICOTS

Leaf venation

Pyrenean oak (Quercus pyrenaica)

Veins usually parallel

Veins usually netlike

Stems Pygmy date palm (Phoenix roebelenii) Vascular tissue usually arranged in ring

Vascular tissue scattered

LE 30-12bc

MONOCOTS
Lily (Lilium Enchantment)

EUDICOTS

Roots

Root system usually fibrous (no main root)

Taproot (main root) usually present

Dog rose (Rosa canina), a wild rose

LE 30-12bd

MONOCOTS
Barley (Hordeum vulgare), a grass Pollen

EUDICOTS
Pea (Lathyrusner vosus, Lord Ansons blue pea), a legume Pollen grain with three openings

Pollen grain with one opening

Flowers Anther Stigma Filament Ovary Floral organs usually in multiples of three Floral organs usually in multiples of four or five Zucchini (Cucurbita Pepo), female (left), and male flowers

Evolutionary Links Between Angiosperms and Animals

Pollination of flowers by animals and transport of seeds by animals are two important relationships in terrestrial ecosystems

Video: Bee Pollinating

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Video: Bat Pollinating

LE 30-13

A flower pollinated by honeybees.

A flower pollinated by hummingbirds.

A flower pollinated by nocturnal animals.

Concept 30.4: Human welfare depends greatly on seed plants

No group of plants is more important to human survival than seed plants Plants are key sources of food, fuel, wood products, and medicine Our reliance on seed plants makes preservation of plant diversity critical

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Products from Seed Plants

Most of our food comes from angiosperms Six crops (wheat, rice, maize, potatoes, cassava, and sweet potatoes) yield 80% of the calories consumed by humans Modern crops are products of relatively recent genetic change resulting from artificial selection Many seed plants provide wood Secondary compounds of seed plants are used in medicines
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Threats to Plant Diversity

Destruction of habitat is causing extinction of many plant species Loss of plant habitat is often accompanied by loss of the animal species that plants support

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings