Dynamic Analysis of First

Order Instruments
P M V Subbarao
Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
Capability to Reach Exact Equilibrium

First Order Instruments

A first order linear instrument has an output which is given by

a non-homogeneous first order linear differential equation
) (
0 1
t x y a
dt
dy
a +
( )
( )
( )
0 1
a s a
s X
s Y
+

( )
( )
( )

'

0 1
1
a s a
s X
t y

In these instruments there is a time delay in their response to

changes of input.

The time constant is a measure of the time delay.

Thermometers for measuring temperature are first-order

instruments.

The time constant of a measurement of temperature is

determined by the thermal capacity of the thermometer and the
thermal contact between the thermometer and the body whose
temperature is being measured.

A cup anemometer for measuring wind speed is also a first

order instrument.

The time constant depends on the anemometer's moment of

inertia.
First order Instrument Step Response
b
0
0 ) (
0
> t b t x
s
b
s X
0
) (
( )
( )
( ) ( )
0 1
0
0 1
a s a s
b
a s a
s X
s Y
+

The complex function F(s) must be decomposed into partial fractions

in order to use the tables of correspondences. This gives
( )
( )
0 1
1
0
0
0
0
1

a s a
a
a
b
s a
b
s Y
+

( )

,
_

+

1
0
0
0
0
0
1 1

a
a
s
a
b
s a
b
s Y
( )

'

,
_

+

1
0
0
0
1 1

a
a
s
s a
b
s Y ( )
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

'

,
_

+


1
0
0
0
1
1 1

a
a
s
s a
b
t y
( )

'

,
_

1
0
0
0
exp 1
a
t a
a
b
t y
constant time :
0
1

a
a
Factor Gauge :
0
0
K
a
b

( )

'

,
_

t
K t y exp 1
( )
K
t y
Thermometer: A First Order Instrument
Conservation of Energy during a time dt
Heat in heat out = Change in energy
of thermometer
Assume no losses from the stem.
Heat in = Change in energy
of thermometer
( ) System the of e Temperatur ous Instantane t T
s
( ) t T
s
( ) t T
tf
( ) fluid ric thermomet of e Temperatur ous Instantane t T
tf
R
s
R
cond R
tf
T
s
(t)
T
tf
(t)
tf cond s
R R R
U
+ +

1
( )dt T T UA in heat
tf s bulb

Change in energy of thermometer:
( )
tf tf bulb
dT C V
( )
tf tf bulb tf s bulb
T C V dt T T UA
s bulb tf bulb
tf
tf bulb
T UA T UA
dt
dT
C V +
0 s tf
tf
bulb
tf bulb
T T
dt
dT
UA
C V
+

bulb
tf bulb
UA
C V

Time constant
0 s tf
tf
T T
dt
dT
+
( ) ( )
s
T
s s s
s
tf tf
0
+
( ) ( )
s
T
s s
s
tf
0
1 +
( )
( ) 1
0
+

s s
T
s
s
tf

Step Response of Thermometers

( )
( ) 1
0 0
+

s
T
s
T
s
s s
tf

( )

,
_

1
0 0
s
T
s
T
s
s s
tf
( )

'

,
_

1
1 1
0
s
s
T s
s tf
( )
1
1
1
1
]
1

'

,
_

1
1 1
0
1
s
s
T t T
s tf

( )

'

,
_

t
T t T
s tf
exp 1
0
( )

'

,
_

t
T t T
s tf
exp 1
bulb
tf bulb
UA
C V

Response of Thermometers: Periodic Loading

If the input is a sine-wave, the output response is

quite different;

but again, it will be found that there is a general

solution for all situations of this kind.
s tf
tf
bulb
tf bulb
T T
dt
dT
UA
C V
+

( ) ( )
2 2
max ,
max

s
s t Sin T T
s
s s s
( ) ( )
2 2
max ,

+
s
s s s
s
tf tf
( ) ( )
2 2
max ,
1

+
s
s s
s
tf
( )
( )( ) 1
2 2
max ,
+ +

s s
s
s
tf

( )
( )( )

'

+ +

1
2 2
max , 1
s s
t T
s
tf

( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) t
t
T
e
T t T
s
t
s tf







+
+
+
+

1
2 2
max ,
2 2
max ,
tan
sin
1
1
T
s
,
m
a
x
-

T
t
f
,
m
a
x

U-tube Manometer : A Second Order System

The pressure to be measured is

that of a system that involves a
fluid (liquid or a gas) different from
the manometer liquid.

Let the density of the fluid whose

pressure being measured be
f
and
that of the manometer liquid be
m
.

Equilibrium of the manometer

liquid requires that there be the
same force in the two limbs across
the plane AA.

We then have
gh p gh p
m atm f
+ +
p
p
atm
This may be rearranged to read ( ) gh p p
f m atm
+ +
Dynamic response of a U tube manometer
h

The manometer liquid is assumed to be incompressible the total

length of the liquid column remains fixed at L.

Assume that the manometer is initially in the equilibrium position.

The pressure difference p is suddenly applied across it.

The liquid column will move during time t > 0.

The forces that are acting on the length L of the manometer liquid are:
Inertial Force
2
2
dt
h d
L A a m F
m m liquid liquid i

Force disturbing the equilibrium p A F
m dis

Forces opposing the change:
a. Weight of column of liquid
b. Fluid friction due to viscosity of the liquid :
gh A gh m F
m m liquid g

dt
dh
d
L
u
d
L
p
m f
2 2
32 32
The fricitional pressure drop
m f viscous
A p F

The velocity of the liquid column is expected to be small and

the laminar assumption is thus valid.

The viscous force opposing the motion is calculated based

on the assumption of fully developed Hagen-Poiseuelle flow.
m f viscous
A p F
dt
dh
d
L
A p A F
m f m viscous
2
32

Newtons Law of Motion
viscous g dis i
F F F F
dt
dh
d
L
A gh A p A
dt
h d
L A
m m m m m m
2 2
2
32

dt
dh
d
L
gh p
dt
h d
L
m m
2 2
2
32

p gh
dt
dh
d
L
dt
h d
L
m m
+ +

2 2
2
32
g
p
h
dt
dh
g d
L
dt
h d
g
L
m m


+ +
2 2
2
32
Second Order System
g
p
h
dt
dh
g d
L
dt
h d
g
L
m m


+ +
2 2
2
32
g
p
b a
g d
L
a
g
L
a
m m



0 0
2
1 2
& 1 ;
32
;
The essential parameters
The static sensitivity:
g
p
a
b
K
m

0
0
The dimensionless damping ratio:
g
L
g d
L
a a
a
m

2
2 0
1
2
32
2

The Natural Frequency:
L
g
a
a
n

2
0

g
p
dt
dh
dt
h d
m n n

+ + 1
2 1
2
2
2
( )
( ) ( )
0 1 2
2
1

a s a a s s X
s Y
G(s)
+ +

Transfer Function of a second order system:
( )
2 2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
n n
n
n n
s s
s
s
G(s)

+ +

,
_

+ +

( )
gs
p
s X
m

( )
( )
2 2
2
2
n n m
n
s s gs
p
s Y

+ +

The transfer function is parameterized in terms of and

n
.
The value of
n
doesnt qualitatively change the system response.

There are three important caseswith qualitatively different

system behavioras varies.

The three cases are called:

Over Damped System ( >1)

Critically Damped System ( =1)

Under Damped System ( <1)

Over Damped System ( >1)

1
2
32
2
>
g
L
g d
L
m

1
2
32
2
>
g
L
d
m

16
2
g
d
L
m
>
( ) [ ] ( ) [ ]

'

t e t e
g
p
t y
n
t
n
t
m
n n
1 sinh
1
1 cosh 1 ) (
2
2
2

t
y(t)
General Response of A Second Order System
t
0
0.5
t
y(t)
p
g t y
m

) (
p
g t y
m

) (
0.70
7
1.0
t
p
g t y
m

) (
Response of U tube manometer to step input
p
g t y
m

) (