THERMODYNAMICS

By:K.B.ABHISHEK XI SCI

WHAT IS THERMODYNAMICS?
Thermodynamics, field of physics that describes and correlates the physical properties of macroscopic systems of matter and energy. The principles of thermodynamics are of fundamental importance to all branches of science and engineering.

- Thermodynamics is the study of how heat energy and radiation behaves. - Thermodynamics is a very important topic in Chemistry and Physics. It is also a very important process of understanding key concepts in biology. - There are two very important concepts that form the foundation for understanding thermodynamics.

Why is the study of Thermodynamics important?

The study of thermodynamics is important because many machines and modern devices change heat into work, such as an automobile engine or turn work into heat or cooling, such as with a refrigerator. Understanding how thermodynamics works helps you understand how machines that use thermodynamics work.

Some things about heat

The natural temperature of your body is 98.6 degrees. When your body looses heat faster than it can internally replace it, it instinctively starts to shiver. Shivering produces mechanical energy that is converted into heat energy. Your skin develops goosebumps to increase it's ability as an insulator. Insulators are objects/substances that can trap heat. Heat has a tendency to rise.

Measuring Heat
Heat and Temperature are not the same thing. Heat is the energy associated with the movement of molecules. Temperature is a measurement of the speed of molecules. The SI Unit for heat is the Calorie. The SI Units for Temperature are degrees Fahrenheit, Degrees Celsius and Degrees Kelvin. The SI Unit for energy is the Joule.

The Earth's Troposphere

A cold front is a boundary where a cold air mass is replacing a warm air mass. Cold fronts move very fast because the cold air causes the hot air preceeding the cold air mass to quickly rise above it.. This rush of rising air forms cumulus clouds. The cumulus clouds eventually become cumulonimbus clouds, which produce thunderstorms.

The Earth's Troposphere

The tendency of heat to rise is also why warm fronts move slower than cold fronts. The warm air continues to ride at the boundary zone. The air mass does not move forward until the volume of warm air eventually pushes the cold air out of the way.

Thermodynamic systems
In Thermodynamics, a system is the set of all objects involved in the transfer of energy. The boundary of a system separates the objects exchanging the energy from outside objects that are, for all practical purposes, unimportant.

ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

When two systems are in equilibrium, they share a certain property. This property can be measured and a definite numerical value ascribed to it. A consequence of this fact is the zeroth law of thermodynamics, which states that when each of two systems is in equilibrium with a third, the first two systems must be in equilibrium with each other. This shared property of equilibrium is the temperature.

TEMPERATURE
Temperatures are measured with devices called thermometers (see Thermometer). A thermometer contains a substance with conveniently identifiable and reproducible states, such as the normal boiling and freezing points of pure water. If a graduated scale is marked between two such states, the temperature of any system can be determined by having that system brought into thermal contact with the thermometer, provided that the system is large relative to the thermometer.

The First Law of Thermodynamics:

The First Law of Thermodynamics states the following: Energy is omnipresent. It is neither created or destroyed. It transfers from one form to another. The change of internal energy is equivalent to the difference between the energy put into a system and the work done by the system. Mathematically, this is expressed as the following:

What does that mean?

--Suppose a boiling egg rises to the meniscus of the boiling water. Suppose the egg rose 0.03 m (3 cm) from the water with a force of 2 newtons. Using the formula for work from physics (work = force x distance), we can calculate the work to be 0.06 Joules. Suppose we knew that the change of energy was 8 Joules. That would mean that the amount of heat energy released would have to be 8.06 Joules.

ContinuedIf you put energy into this system, it will come out in some form or fashion. If you put a lid on this pot, then the top will eventually start to rock and steam will escape from underneath it. When this happens, the heat energy in this system performing work on the pot lid.

Second Law of Thermodynamics

The second law of thermodynamics gives a precise definition of a property called entropy. Entropy can be thought of as a measure of how close a system is to equilibrium; it can also be thought of as a measure of the disorder in the system. The law states that the entropythat is, the disorderof an isolated system can never decrease. Thus, when an isolated system achieves a configuration of maximum entropy, it can no longer undergo change: It has reached equilibrium. Nature, then, seems to prefer disorder or chaos. It can be shown that the second law stipulates that, in the absence of work, heat cannot be transferred from a region at a lower temperature to one at a higher temperature.

Continued The second law poses an additional condition on thermodynamic processes. It is not enough to conserve energy and thus obey the first law. A machine that would deliver work while violating the second law is called a perpetual-motion machine of the second kind, since, for example, energy could then be continually drawn from a cold environment to do work in a hot environment at no cost. The second law of thermodynamics is sometimes given as a statement that precludes perpetual-motion machines of the second kind.

Clausius statement
Rudolf Clausius put the simplest formulation of the second law, the heat formulation or Clausius statement[1]: No process is possible whose sole result is the transfer of heat from a cooler to a hotter bodyInformally, "Heat doesn't flow from cold to hot (without work input)", which is true obviously from ordinary experience. For example in a refrigerator, heat flows from cold to hot, but only when aided by an external agent (i.e. the compressor). An exception to this is for statistically unlikely events where hot particles will "steal" the energy of cold particles enough that the cold side gets colder and the hot side gets hotter, for an instant. Such events have been observed at a small enough scale where the likelihood of such a thing happening is significant.[2] The mathematics involved in such an event are described by fluctuation theorem.

Kelvin statement
Lord Kelvin put another form of the Second Law,the Kelvin statement[1] No process is possible whose sole result is the absorption of heat from a reservoir and the conversion of this heat into work.That is, it is impossible to extract energy by heat from a hightemperature energy source and then convert all of the energy into work. At least some of the energy must be passed on to heat a lowtemperature energy sink. Thus, a heat engine with 100% efficiency is thermodynamically impossible. This also means that it is impossible to build solar panels that generate electricity solely from the infrared band of the electromagnetic spectrum without consideration of the temperature on the other side of the panel (as is the case with conventional solar panels that

Continued Note that it is possible to convert heat completely into work, such as the isothermal expansion of ideal gas. However, such process has additional result. In the case of the isothermal expansion, the volume of the gas increases and never goes back without outside interferences.

Equivalence of the two statements

Suppose there is an engine against Kelvin statement , i.e. .,one that drains heat and converts it completely into work in a cyclic fashion without other results. Now pair it with a reversed Carnot engine as shown by the graph. The net and sole effect of this newly engine consisting of the two engines mentioned are transferring heat from the cooler reservoir to the hotter one, which violates Clausius statement. Thus Clausius statement implies Kelvin statement. We can prove in a similar manner that Kelvin statement induces Clausius statement, or, in a word, the two are equivalent.

Derive Kelvin Statement from Clausius Statement

THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The second law suggests the existence of an absolute temperature scale that includes an absolute zero of temperature. The third law of thermodynamics states that absolute zero cannot be attained by any procedure in a finite number of steps. Absolute zero can be approached arbitrarily closely, but it can never be reached.

MICROSCOPIC BASIS OF THERMODYNAMICS

The recognition that all matter is made up of molecules provided a microscopic foundation for thermodynamics. A thermodynamic system consisting of a pure substance can be described as a collection of like molecules, each with its individual motion describable in terms of such mechanical variables as velocity and momentum. At least in principle, it should therefore be possible to derive the collective properties of the system by solving equations of motion for the molecules. In this sense, thermodynamics could be regarded as a mere application of the laws of mechanics to the microscopic system.

Continued Objects of ordinary sizethat is, ordinary on the human scalecontain immense numbers (on the order of 1024) of molecules. Assuming the molecules to be spherical, each would need three variables to describe its position and three more to describe its velocity. Describing a macroscopic system in this way would be a task that even the largest modern computer could not manage. A complete solution of these equations, furthermore, would tell us where each molecule is and what it is doing at every moment. Such a vast quantity of information would be too detailed to be useful and too transient to be important.

Continued Statistical methods were devised therefore to obtain averages of the mechanical variables of the molecules in a system and to provide the gross features of the system. These gross features turn out to be, precisely, the macroscopic thermodynamic variables. The statistical treatment of molecular mechanics is called statistical mechanics, and it anchors thermodynamics to mechanics. Viewed from the statistical perspective, temperature represents a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules of a system. Increases in temperature reflect increases in the vigor of molecular motion. When two systems are in contact, energy is transferred between molecules as a result of collisions. The transfer will continue until uniformity is achieved, in a statistical sense, which corresponds to thermal equilibrium. The kinetic energy of the molecules also corresponds to heat and together with the potential energy arising from interaction between moleculesmakes up the internal energy of a system.

 The conservation of energy, a well-known law of mechanics, translates readily to the first law of thermodynamics, and the concept of entropy translates into the extent of disorder on the molecular scale. By assuming that all combinations of molecular motion are equally likely, thermodynamics shows that the more disordered the state of an isolated system, the more combinations can be found that could give rise to that state, and hence the more frequently it will occur. The probability of the more disordered state occurring overwhelms the probability of the occurrence of all other states. This probability provides a statistical basis for definitions of both equilibrium state and entropy.

Continued-

Continued Finally, temperature can be reduced by taking energy out of a system, that is, by reducing the vigor of molecular motion. Absolute zero corresponds to the state of a system in which all its constituents are at rest. This is, however, a notion from classical physics. In terms of quantum mechanics, residual molecular motion will exist even at absolute zero. An analysis of the statistical basis of the third law goes beyond the scope of the present discussion.