How Cells Acquire Energy

Chapter 7
 Carbon and Energy Sources
• Photoautotrophs
– Carbon source is carbon dioxide
– Energy source is sunlight

• Heterotrophs
– Get carbon and energy by eating autotrophs or one
another
 Flow Chart

? http://en.wikipedia.org
 Photoautotrophs
• Capture sunlight energy and use it to carry
out photosynthesis
– Plants

– Some bacteria

– Many protistans
Spirogyra and Maidenhead Fern
 Question 1
• 1. what is a photoautotroph and give an
example?
 Answer 1
• 1. what is a photoautotroph and give an
example?
• An organism which uses CO2 as a
carbon source, converts light energy to
chemical energy to make its own food.
 T.E. Englemann’s Experiment

Background
• Certain bacterial cells will move
toward places where oxygen
concentration is high

• Photosynthesis produces oxygen

T.E. Englemann’s Experiment

Figure 7.1
Page 111
 Question 2
• 2. Which colors do photoautotrophs
absorb (to make chemical bonds)?
 Answer 2
• 2. Which colors do photoautotrophs
absorb (to make chemical bonds)?
• Blue and red
 Question 3
• 3. Why are most photoautotrophs green?
 Answer 3
• 3. Why are most photoautotrophs green?

• They reflect primarily green light

because they absorb blues and reds.
 Question 4
• 4. how did Englemann know that the plant
absorbed blue and red light?
 Answer 4
• 4. how did Englemann know that the plant
absorbed blue and red light?

• The bacteria in the culture clustered

about the areas of high oxygen
concentration . The oxygen indicated
the light zones used in photosynthesis.
 Linked Processes
Photosynthesis Aerobic Respiration

• Energy-storing • Energy-releasing
pathway pathway

• Requires oxygen
• Releases oxygen
• Releases carbon
• Requires carbon dioxide
dioxide
 Linked Processes

http://www.bios.niu.edu/sims/metabolism/metabolism13.htm
Energy Currency

ATP
 Chloroplast Structure

two outer
membranes

stroma

inner membrane
system
(thylakoids connected by
channels)

Figure 7.3d, Page 116

 Photosynthesis Equation

LIGHT ENERGY
12H2O + 6CO2 6O2 + C2H12O6 + 6H2O
Water Carbon Oxygen Glucose Water
Dioxide

In-text figure
Page 115
 Question 5
5. What is the cellular energy currency?
 Answer 5
• 5. What is the cellular energy currency?

• ATP
 Where Atoms End Up

Reactants 12H2O 6CO2

Products 6O2 C6H12O6 6H2O

In-text figure
Page 116
 Two Stages of Photosynthesis
sunlight water uptake carbon dioxide uptake

ATP

LIGHT- ADP + Pi LIGHT-

DEPENDENT INDEPENDENT
REACTIONS REACTIONS
NADPH

NADP+

P glucose

oxygen release new water

In-text figure
Page 117
 Question 6
6. What molecule(s) links the light reaction
to the dark reaction?
 Answer 6
6. What molecule(s) links the light reaction
to the dark reaction?

ATP and NADPH

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Shortest Gamma rays
wavelength X-rays
UV radiation
Visible light
Infrared radiation
Microwaves
Longest Radio waves
wavelength
 Visible Light
• Wavelengths humans perceive as different
colors
• Violet (380 nm) to red (750 nm)
• Longer wavelengths, lower energy

Figure 7.5a
Page 118
 Photons
• Packets of light energy

• Each type of photon has fixed amount of

energy

• Photons having most energy travel as

shortest wavelength (blue-violet light)
 Pigments

• Color you see is the wavelengths not

absorbed
• Light-catching part of molecule often has
alternating single and double bonds
• These bonds contain electrons that are
capable of being moved to higher energy
levels by absorbing light
Variety of Pigments

Chlorophylls a and b

Carotenoids

Anthocyanins

Phycobilins
 Chlorophylls
Main pigments in most
photoautotrophs
Wavelength absorption (%)

chlorophyll a

chlorophyll b

Wavelength (nanometers)
Figure 7.6a Page 119 Figure 7.7
Page 120
 Accessory Pigments
Carotenoids, Phycobilins, Anthocyanins
percent of wavelengths absorbed

beta-carotene
phycoerythrin
(a phycobilin)

wavelengths (nanometers)
 Pigments in Photosynthesis
• Bacteria
– Pigments in plasma membranes
• Plants
– Pigments and proteins organized into
photosystems that are embedded in thylakoid
membrane system
 Question 8
• 8. IN the pigments, the color you see is
the wavelengths absorbed / not absorbed?
 Answer 8
• 8. IN the pigments, the color you see is
the wavelengths absorbed / not absorbed?
Photo systems are embedded in the membranes within the thylakoid
 Arrangement of Photosystems

water-splitting complex thylakoid

compartment
H2O 2H + 1/2O2

P680 P700
acceptor acceptor

pool of
PHOTOSYSTEM II electron stroma PHOTOSYSTEM I
carriers

Figure 7.10
Page 121
 Light-Dependent Reactions

• Pigments absorb light energy, give up e-,

which enter electron transfer chains
• Water molecules split, ATP and NADPH
form, and oxygen is released
• Pigments that gave up electrons get
replacements
 Photosystem Function:
Harvester Pigments
• Most pigments in photosystem are
harvester pigments

• When excited by light energy, these

pigments transfer energy to adjacent
pigment molecules

• Each transfer involves energy loss

 Photosystem Function:
Reaction Center
• Energy is reduced to level that can be
captured by molecule of chlorophyll a

• This molecule (P700 or P680) is the

reaction center of a photosystem

• Reaction center accepts energy and

donates electron to acceptor molecule
Pigments in a Photosystem

reaction center

Figure 7.11
Page 122
 Electron Transfer Chain
• Adjacent to photosystem

• Acceptor molecule donates electrons from

reaction center

• As electrons pass along chain, energy

they release is used to produce ATP
 Cyclic Electron Flow
• Electrons
– are donated by P700 in photosystem I to
acceptor molecule
– flow through electron transfer chain and back
to P700
• Electron flow drives ATP formation
• No NADPH is formed
 Cyclic Electron Flow

electron acceptor e–
Electron flow through
transfer chain sets up
conditions for ATP
electron formation at other
e–
transfer
membrane sites.
chain
e–
ATP

e–

Figure 7.12
Page 122
 Noncyclic Electron Flow
• Two-step pathway for light absorption and
electron excitation
• Uses two photosystems: type I and
type II
• Produces ATP and NADPH
• Involves photolysis - splitting of water
 Machinery of
Noncyclic Electron Flow

H2O
second electron
photolysis transfer chain
e–

e–
first electron ATP SYNTHASE
NADP+ NADPH
transfer chain ATP
PHOTOSYSTEM II PHOTOSYSTEM I ADP
+ Pi

Figure 7.13a
Page 123
 Energy Changes

second
Potential to transfer energy (volts)

transfer
chain
e– NADPH
first e–
transfer
chain
e– e–

(Photosystem I)

(Photosystem II)

H2O 1/2O2 + 2H+

Figure 7.13b
Page 123
 Chemiosmotic Model
of ATP Formation
• Electrical and H+ concentration gradients
are created between thylakoid
compartment and stroma

• H+ flows down gradients into stroma

through ATP synthesis

• Flow of ions drives formation of ATP

 Chemiosmotic Model for ATP
Formation

H+ is shunted across Gradients propel H+

Photolysis in the membrane by some through ATP synthases;
thylakoid components of ATP forms by
compartment splits the first electron phosphate-group
water transfer chain transfer

H2O
e– acceptor

ATP SYNTHASE
ATP
PHOTOSYSTEM II Figure 7.15 ADP
Page 124 + Pi
Light-Independent Reactions
(Stopped here 10/9)
• Synthesis part of
photosynthesis
• Can proceed in the dark

• Take place in the stroma

• Calvin-Benson cycle
 Calvin-Benson Cycle
• Overall reactants • Overall products
– Carbon dioxide – Glucose
– ATP – ADP
– NADPH – NADP+

Reaction pathway is cyclic and RuBP

(ribulose bisphosphate) is regenerated
 6 CO2 (from the air)

CARBON
Calvin- FIXATION

6 6
Benson Cycle RuBP unstable intermediate

12
PGA

6 ADP 12 ATP
6 ATP
12 NADPH
4 Pi
12 ADP
12 Pi
10
PGAL 12 NADP+
12
PGAL
2
PGAL
Pi

Figure 7.16 P
glucose
Page 125
 The C3 Pathway
• In Calvin-Benson cycle, the first stable
intermediate is a three-carbon PGA

• Because the first intermediate has three

carbons, the pathway is called the C3
pathway
Leaf Anatomy
Leaf Anatomy #2
 Photorespiration in C3 Plants
• On hot, dry days stomata close
• Inside leaf
– Oxygen levels rise
– Carbon dioxide levels drop
• Rubisco attaches RuBP to oxygen instead
of carbon dioxide
• Only one PGAL forms instead of two
 C4 Plants
• Carbon dioxide is fixed twice
– In mesophyll cells, carbon dioxide is fixed to
form four-carbon oxaloacetate
– Oxaloacetate is transferred to bundle-sheath
cells
– Carbon dioxide is released and fixed again in
Calvin-Benson cycle
C4 Leaf Anatomy
 CAM Plants
• Carbon is fixed twice (in same cells)
• Night
– Carbon dioxide is fixed to form organic acids
• Day
– Carbon dioxide is released and fixed in
Calvin-Benson cycle
Cam vs. C4
Summary of Photosynthesis
light LIGHT-DEPENDENT REACTIONS 6O2
12H2O

ADP + Pi ATP NADP+ NADPH

LIGHT-INDEPENDENT REACTIONS

PGA CALVIN- PGAL

6CO2 BENSON 6H2O
RuBP CYCLE

P
C6H12O6
(phosphorylated glucose)

end product (e.g., sucrose, starch, cellulose)

Figure 7.21
Page 129
Satellite Images Show
Photosynthesis

Atlantic Ocean

Photosynthetic activity in spring

Figure 7.20
Page 128
 Solar­Hydrogen Energy

• Photovoltaic cells use sunlight energy 
to split water 
• Hydrogen gas produced in this way 
can be used as fuel or to generate 
electricity
• Clean, renewable technology
Fuel Cells
 Farmed Hydrogen
• Photobiological Hydrogen Production
• Aquatic algae bio-engineered to produce
hydrogen gas rather than sugars via
photosynthesis
• Place algae in a clear tube, reduce sulfur,
place in sunlight, and collect the hydrogen!
Hydrogen from Algae

Chlamydomonas reinhardt