Sources and collection of data

Chapter contents: Sources and collection of data-primary and secondarymodes of data collection-communication and observation, survey method, interviews-instruments for data collection-questionnaire, schedules; effectiveness and limitations- preparation of questionnaire- pilot testing, factors affecting responses to a questionnaire, sampling and non sampling errors

Sources and kinds of data

Data are facts and other relevant materials, past and present, serving as bases for study and analysis Data forms the basis for testing the hypothesis formulated in a study. Data provides the facts and figures for measurement, which are analyzed with statistical techniques to find answers for questions. There are two sources of data-primary and secondary sources. Primary sources are original sources from which researcher collects data directly that have not been collected earlier

Sources of data
Secondary source contain data which have been collected and compiled for another purpose. Census reports, annual reports of Government departments, financial statements of banks, reports of national sample survey organization, UNO, IMF etc., The data may be published one or unpublished Secondary data can be used as reference purposes, bench marks to test the findings and as the sole source of information for research project. SD can be secured quickly and cheaply, coverage of wide geographical area broadens the data base for scientific generalizations and provides empirical support

Methods of collecting primary data

When secondary data are not available or inadequate or obsolete, primary data should be collected. In social sciences- social surveys, attitudinal studies, economic studies, rural community studies, tv viewing, radio listening etc.,-primary data are essential. The popular methods of collecting data are observation, interviewing, mail survey, experimentation, simulation, projective techniques The choice of methods depends upon nature of the study (collection of opinions), the unit of enquiry, the size of the sample, the educational level of respondents, depth of information required, the availability of skilled and trained man power and rate of accuracy required

Observation method
Observation-meaning and characteristics (physical and mental, selective, purposive, grasps the significant events and should be exact and measurable by standardized tools) Types of observations-participant, non participant, direct, indirect, controlled and uncontrolled Advantages- direct perception, no artificiality, verification is facilitated, less bias, easy to conduct, recording is possible and continuity

Disadvantages: past can not be observed, not suitable to study attitudes and opinions, it is always random, event should happen, slow and expensive.

Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages- direct perception, no artificiality, verification is facilitated, less bias, easy to conduct, recording is possible and continuity

Disadvantages: past can not be observed, not suitable to study attitudes and opinions, it is always random, event should happen, slow and expensive.

Suitability of the method

To study the behaviour of human beings and social groups, life styles, customs and manner, inter personal relations, group dynamics, crowd behaviour etc To study the behaviour of other living creatures Physical characteristics of inanimate things like stores, factories residencies etc., Flow of traffic and parking problems Movement of materials/ products through plant

Survey method
Surveys are conducted in case of descriptive research studies Samples are large in size They are conducted to study the relationships that exist, opinions held and processes being in vogue Surveys are of field research and concerned with hypothesis testing Survey may be census survey or sample survey or social survey, economic survey, public opinion survey Interview or questionnaire, opinionnaire, case study, mail methods are adopted.

Interview method
Two way systematic conversation between investigator and an informant The method is superior to other methods of data gathering. Needed for qualitative and confidential information Advantages: In depth probing possible, percentage of responses is more, Different scoring patterns be used, accuracy and dependability of information can be verified, flexible according to situations

Interview method
Features: The participants are strangers, relationship is temporary, conversation with a purpose, mode of obtaining verbal answers, possible over telephone, clarifications can be given for clarity and it is not like chemical process Types: structured or directive, unstructured or non directive, focused, clinical, depth interview

Interview method
Problems of Interview: Inadequate response, non response, interviewers bias Non availability, refusal, inability, inaccessibility Telephone interviews Group interviews

Schedules and questionnaires

Schedules are questions relating to the topic, canvassed in personal interview Questionnaires are schedules, sent by mail, for which responses are obtained Schedules and questionnaires contain set of questions relating to topic of research, the former is recorded by researcher and the latter is recorded by the respondents Questions are arranged in sequence after a thorough process of construction

Process of construction
Determine what data are required for fulfilling the objectives and testing the hypothesis If you can not imagine the extent questions, conduct pilot study and find out from experts what questions can be incorporated Prepare dummy tables to find out gaps in the light of objectives Determine the target respondents and their level of grasping Determine the sequence of questions

Process of Construction
Structure the questions carefully Divide the questions section-wise like A,B,C, etc., Wording of the questions with clarity: open ended questions, two choice questions, multiple choice questions, declarative questions, etc., Avoid leading questions Avoid loaded questions Avoid ambiguous questions, double barreled, long and double negative questions

Process of construction
Mandatory items: Name of the organization, the title of the study, the confidentialness of the data, serial number of questions, adequate space to fill the answers, page number of the questionnaire to be put, instructions to fill the questionnaire, use of good variety of paper and print, margins , Indentation and note of thanks

Sampling Error
There are two types of errors, namely sampling and non sampling errors Sampling error is the difference between the sample statistic and population parameter. For example the mean marks obtained by 500 students in a subject is 51 and the mean marks of the sample of 50 drawn from the above population is 51.8. The difference is known as sampling error. It is due to mistakes committed in selecting the sample from the population. The difference between the mean value of one sample and the mean value of another sample drawn from the same population is also called sampling error. Lower the sampling error, greater is the reliability and vice versal

Sampling Error
Non sampling error is caused by mistakes committed by researcher either in totaling, placing the values in the correct position or any such calculations

Process and analysis of dataEditing

Editing, coding, classification and tabulation are the steps involved in the process of data, fit for further analysis. Editing is careful scrutiny of the completed questionnaire or schedules. Editing is done to ensure accuracy, confirmity with the rules of consistency and uniformity of the facts recorded aligning with the objectives Elimination of certain answers, repeated answers, and no answers.

Coding
Coding is assigning numerals or other symbols to answers for the purpose of classification. For example, the question is what is the nature of your company? The answer can be private company, public company, public sector company, government company, cooperative organisation, foreign company. For every answer, codes are given like pvt, pu, psu, gov, coop, fogn. This makes it easy to group them under different categories.

classification
Classification is the process of arranging data into sequences and groups according to their common characteristics or separating them into different but related parts. The number of students registered in X University for the year 2009 can be classified on the basis of sex, age, states from which they hail, religion,category (sc/st /gen), specializations, institutions and so on In Socio economic survey, the family budget can be classified under the following heads-food, clothing, fuel and lighting, house rent, miscellaeous etc.,

Types of classification
Geographical, chronological, qualitative and quantitative Agricultural output of different states during 2008(In lakh tons) ; population of India during 20th century (decade wise); Population-male and female- smokers and non smokers-Hindus, muslims, christians during 2005 Daily earnings (in 000 Rs) of 60 department stores-upto 10, 11 to 20,21 to 30, etc., and the number of stores Classification condenses the data, facilitates comparison, study the relationship, facilitates statistical treatment

Tabulation
Systematic presentation of the information contained in the data, in rows and columns in accordance with some salient features or characteristic features. Parts of a table: Table number, title, head note, captions and stubs, body of the table, foot note, source note. Headings or designations for vertical columns are known as captions and designations for the horizontal rows are known as stubs Present the following information in a suitable tabular form supplying the figures not directly given

Tabulation
In 1995, out of 2000 workers in a factory, 1550 were members of a trade union. The number of women workers employed was 250, out of which 200 did not belong to any trade union.. In 2000, the number of union workers was 1725 of which 1600 were men. The number of non union workers was 380, among which 155 were women.

Problem of tabulation
Tabulate the following: A leading departmental store divided into five main sections-grocery, vegetables, medicines, textiles, and novelties.-recorded the following sales in 1991, 1992and 1993: In 1991, the sales in grocery, vegetables, medicines and novelties were Rs.6,25,000, 2,20,000, 1,88,000 and 94 000 respectively. Textiles accounted for 30% of the total sales during the years. In 1992, the total sales showed10% increase over the previous year. While grocery and vegetables registered 8% and 10% increaseover their corresponding figures in 1991, medicines dropped by Rs.13,000, textiles stood at Rs. 5,36,000 In 1993, though the total sales remained the same as in 1992, grocery fell by Rs.22,000, vegetables by Rs.32,000, medicines by Rs.10000 and novelties by Rs.12,000.

Report writing
Report writing role; Types of reports-written; contents of research reportsteps involved in draft reportreferencesappendix, bibliography, criteria for evaluation

Report writing
Research report is a means for communicating our research experiences and adding to the fund of knowledge It contains problem studied, methods used for studying , findings and conclusions of the study The functions of RR are- it is a basic reference material for future, means to judge the quality of the completed research project, means to judge the researchers ability, a base for formulating policies and strategies relating to subject matter, systematic knowledge on problems and issues analysed

Types of reports
Technical report, popular report, interim report, summary report, research abstract. Technical report is meant for academic community and more technical in nature. The usual process of any research like problem, process, methodology, experimentation, sources of data and analysis of data and results, recommendations are contained in this Popular report aims at administrators and executives and it is addressed to different audience. Complicated statistical techniques and tables need not be used. It contains more pictorial representations. A brief abstract followed by findings, conclusions and recommendations is presented and more journalistic in nature.

Types of reports
Interim report: If there is a long gap between data collection and results, especially in a sponsored projects, a short report is presented in between, highlighting the objectives and the work of analysis so far carried through. The intension is to keep the interests of the agencies alive to prevent the misunderstandings about the delay. Summary report: It is prepared for the audience of general public. It is written in simple language, in non technical terms, and using profusely pictorial and diagrammatic presentations.

Types of reports
Research Abstract: This is a short summary of technical report. This is prepared by Ph.D scholars before submitting the main thesis. It contains in brief the objectives, methodology adopted, major results and conclusions and recommendations for evaluation purposes

Contents of research report

A. Report Outline: Prefactory items: TITLE PAGE, RESEARCHERS DECLARATION, THE CERTIFICATE OF THE RESEARCH SUPERVISOR, PREFACE OR ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS, TABLE OF CONTENTS, LIST OF TABLES, LIST OF GRAPHS AND CHARTS, ABSTRACT OR SYNOPSIS Body of the report: 1. Introduction:- Theoretical background of the topic, statement of the problem, review of literature, the scope of the present study, the objectives of the study, hypothesis to be tested, definition of concepts, conceptual model

B.

Contents of report
2. The design of the study: methodology, methods of data collection, souces of data, sampling plan, data collection instruments, field work, data processing and analysis plan, an overview of the report and limitations of the study 3. Results: findings and discussions 4. Summary, conclusions and recommendations C. Terminal items: Bibliography, appendix: copies of data collection instruments, technical details on sampling plan, complex tables, glossary of new terms used in the report

Contents of report
General principles of writing the report: Type on one side of every page, numbering the pages, style of English used, Headings are used for every section, paragraph headings, accuracy, clarity, coherence and readability, grammar, spelling, punctuation, capitalization, writing in third person, using more of active voice, use present tense, quotation marks, acknowledgement for using quotations through foot note, using italics, not using abbreviations etc.,

Criteria for evaluation

The appropriateness of the title Importance of the problem Problem formulation Review of related literature Soundness of methodology Data analysis Contributions of the study, conclusions and recommendations Presentation Evaluation report

Ethics in Research
The importance of ethics in scientific research involving human beings and animals is more focused than in social sciences The ethical issues in scientific research include safety of the research participant, obtaining the consent of the participant, privacy and confidentiality, protection to be given to participant if any adverse events happen in the course of investigation, norms relating to disclosure, understanding, voluntariness, competency and consent

Ethical issues
Some of the difficult issues relating to ethics: How insider trading is defined, proved and presented Why companies should not trade with abusive regimes? Executives over confidence and slippery slope to fraud Baseball, steroids and business ethics Involving human and animal experimentation Academic scandals such as fraudulent collection of data, fabrication of information, plagiarism, whistle blowing, misuse of information, review process, authorship and editorial boards etc.,

Application of research in marketing, finance, HR and social sciences

Topics in marketing: Pricing of products, product designing, market share studies, market segmentation for various products, promotional strategies, branding, brand equity, export promotion, consumer studies, inventions in advertisement, marketing and negotiation skills, channels of distribution, marketing management effectiveness, etc.,

Application of research in finance

Topics: Micro finance Retail and commercial banking Financing of emerging financial markets Alternative investments Internet banking Corporate social responsibility of banking industry Risk management Accounting standards Education, perception and gender bias in accounting Ethics in accounting etc.,

Application of research in HR