MEDICAL BIOLOGY

Lecture 1

Biology as a science of life. Cell as an elementary unit of living matter.

Plan:
1. Biology as a science, the subject-matter, main goals and methods of studing. 2. The properties of a living matter and the levels of biological organization. 3. Cellular structure of a living matter. 4. Organization of hereditary material in pro- and eukaryotes. 5. Eukaryotic chromosomes, their chemical composion and structural organization.

Biology - is a scientific study of natural laws of life

Bios life, G. R. Treviranus logos study J. B. de Lamarck The term of biology was used in 1802 by

(17761837)

(1744 1829)

Subject-matter
all forms of life in our planet and its properties

Main goals:
1. To study the features and properties of a living matter. 2. To know the essence of life.

Main methods of biology

1. Descriptive method. 2. Comparative method. 3. Historical method. 4. Experimental method. 5. Modeling method.

Properties of a living matter

1. Specific organization, form, size and structure of living matter. 2. Chemical composition. 3. Cellular structure (except viruses). 4. Metabolism. 5. Selfregulation. 6. Growth and development. 7. Heredity and variability. 8. Irritability. 9. Reproduction. 10. Homeostasis.

Levels of biological organization

Classification of living organisms

Living organisms

Non-cellular Viruses Prokaryotes

Cellular Eukaryotes Mushrooms Plants Animals

Blue-green algae

Bacteria

CELL BIOLOGY

Cell elementary structural, functional and genetic unit of living matter

First image of cells by Robert Hook - 1665

Robert Hook

(18.07.1635 - 3.03.1703)

CELL THEORY
1838 Matthias Schleiden 1839 Theodor Schwann 1858 - Rudolph Virchow
Theodor Schwann

Matthias Schleiden

Rudolph Virchow

The modern states of cell theory

1. The basic unit of structure and function of living organisms is cell. 2. All cells are basically alike in chemical composition and metabolic activities. 3. All cells arise from the pre-existing by cell division. 4. Multicellular organism consists of many cells which are connect together and form unique system.

PROKARYOTES

The main characters of prokaryotes

A) They have no real nucleus, Nucleoid Region is the cytoplasm region where DNA is located. B) Bacterial Cell Wall = a rigid outer layer from murein protein, that surrounds the cell membrane, protects the cell, maintains shape. C) Capsule is a sticky outer layer over cell wall. D) Ribosomes 70S. E)They have no membranous organelles. F) Mesosomes are present.

Scheme of prokaryotic cell

Bacteria (electronic microscopy)

Blue-green algae (electronic microscopy)

Eukaryotes
-have a nucleus; -have a complex internal organization; - have compartmentalized membrane bound organelles

Animal cell

Eukaryotic cells
Main components:
*Nucleus
Plant cell

*Plasma

membrane
*Cytoplasm

Fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane

1) Lipids (30%) phosphoglycerides, cholesterol 2) Proteins (30%) peripheral, integral 3) Carbocchadrates (10%)

FUCTIONS OF PLASMA MEMBRANE

1. Absorption of materials (endocytose); 2. Excretion of materials (exocytose); 3.Transport of materials (diffusion, active transport, facilitated transport); 4. Locomotion function; 5. Cell form;

CELL NUCLEUS
Structure: 1) Nuclear envelope 2) Nucleoplasm 3) Nucleolus 4) Chromatin
Functions: 1. To keep the hereditary material; 2. To control the metabolic processes; 3. To synthesize the ribosomes.

CYTOPLASM
1. Cytosol. 2. Organelles. 3. Cell inclusions.

CELL ORGANELLE
CYTOPLASMIC STRUCTURE OF CELL FULLFILING THE SPECIFIC FUNCTIONS

ORGANELLES OF EUKARYOTIC CELL

MEMBRANOUS

NON-MEMBRANOUS

SINGLE MEMBRANOUS

DOUBLE MEMBRANOUS

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

ER GOLGY BODY LYSOSOMES MICROBODIES VACUOLES

1. MITOCHONDRIA 2. PLASTIDS

1. RIBOSOMES 2. MICROTUBULES (CENTRIOLES, FLAGELLA, CILIA, BASAL BODIES) 3. MICROFILAMENTS

SINGLE MEMBRANOUS ORGANELLES

Endoplasmic reticulum
ER - membrane system Types: Smooth ER (has ribosomes) Rough ER (has no ribosomes)

ER Functions
Smooth ER 1. Synthesis and transport of lipids and carbohydrates. Rough ER: 1. Synthesis and transport of proteins.

Golgi body - a stack of flattened membranous saca or cisternae

Golgy body functions

1. Storage, packaging, sorting and modification of proteins before exportation. 2. Lysosome formation. 3. Universal center of cell polymerization. 4. Transport of substances. 5. Synthesis of lipids, sugar, hormones and vitamins.

Golgi body (electronic microscopy)

Dictyosome

Vacuole Vesicles

Connection of ER and Golgi body

Lysosome formation

Lysosome functions
1. Intercellular digestion. 2. Autophagy. 3. Autolysis. 4. Exocytosis.

DOUBLE MEMBRANOUS ORGANELLES

Mitochondrion
1) Two membranes inner and outer; 2) Cristae; 3) Matrix; 4) Circular DNA; 5) 70S ribosomes;

1) ATP synthesis 2) Autoreproduction

Types of plastids
1. Chloroplasts (green colour) - photosynthesis; 2. Leucoplasts (colourless) - storage function; 3. Chromoplasts (red, orange, yellow colour) - colour of flowers, fruits and vegetables.

Chloroplast structure

1) Two membranes - inner and outer; 2) Thylakoid unit structure of chloroplast 3) Granum group of thylakoids 4) Lamellae membranous extension connecting of grana 5) Stroma chloroplast cytoplasm; 6) Circular DNA; 7) 70S ribosomes;

Plastids

Non-membranous organelles

Ribosome
RNA Small subunit Large subunit

Function: Protein synthesis

Proteins

Cytoskeleton

Cytoskeleton (electronic microscopy)

Microfilaments - blue colour, microtubules green colour, intermediate microfilaments red colour. Microfilaments = thinnest (actin) Microtubules = thickest (tubulin)

Functions of cytoskeleton
1. Cell form; 2. Movement structures. of cell and its internal

3. Cell division.

Structure of centrioles (system of 9+3)

Triplets of microtubules

Functions:
They form the mitotic spindle apparatus

The characters of a plant cell

Cellulose envelope Vacuole Chloroplasts Plasmodesma

1. No lysosomes. 2. No centrioles. 3. Presence of cellulose envelope. 4. Presence of big central vacuole.

Organization of hereditary material in pro- and eukaryotes

HEREDITY

property of living matter to providing the characters in generations

HEREDITARY MATERIAL IN LIVING MATTER

NUCLEIC ACIDS: DNA DIOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID RNA RIBONUCLEIC ACID

DISCOVERY OF THE NUCLEIC ACIDS

1869 - F. Miescher
white blood cells.

found the nucleic acids in human

Phenomenon of Transformation
Experiment of Griffiths (1928)

Experiment of O.T. Avery, C. Macleod and M. McCarty (1944)

They discovered transforming agent - DNA.

Experiment of Alfred Hershey and Marta Chase (1952)

They were accepted that DNA is the genetic material in all organisms.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF THE NUCLEIC ACIDS

Russian biochemist Phoebus Levene investigates the DNA Structure (1919)

Phoebus Levene

Erwin Chargaff (1950) (Chargaffs rules)

He noted the nucleotide composition of DNA

Primary structure of DNA

Phosphoric acid Nucleotide

Phosphodiester bond

Secondary structure of DNA

Hydrogen bond

Glycosidic bond

Astbury, Wilkins and Franklin (1950-s)

They suggested helical configuration for DNA.

James Watson and Francis Crick (1953)

They proposed the double helical structure for DNA molecule.

Tertiary structure of DNA (double helix)

Complete turn 3,4 nm

Diameter 2 nm

Distance between to nucleotides 0,34 nm

DNA replication

self duplication property of DNA

Enzymes for DNA replication

Topoisomerase helps to convert rings (supercoils) of DNA from one topological form to another. Helicase helps in unwinding the helix

Single-stranded DNA-binding (SSB) protein stable the free single-stranded region. RNA primase catalyzes the polymerization of RNA building blocks (A, U, G, C) into the primer.

DNA polymerase synthesizes of DNA molecule. DNA ligase catalyzes the linkage of Okazaki fragments

Semiconservative mechanism of DNA replication

Topoisomerase

Helicase SSB-protein

RNAprimer

RNA

DNA

TYPES OF RNA MOLECULES:

Messenger RNA (m-RNA)

Transfer RNA (t-RNA)

Ribosomal RNA (r-RNA) magenta colour

HEREDITARY MATERIAL

PROKARYOTES Nucleoid
Circle DNA without proteins

EUKARYOTES Nucleus
Linear DNA with proteins (chromatin or chromosomes)

LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF HEREDITARY MATERIAL

* GENE LEVEL * CHROMOSOMAL LEVEL * GENOME LEVEL

Gene level

GENE
region of DNA molecule containing the information about primary structure of polypeptide or about m-RNA and t-RNA molecules.

Gene properties (Benzer, 1961)

A gene is a segment of DNA. A gene has a unique sequence of nucleotide base pairs. A gene codes for a specific polypeptide, or rRNA, or t-RNA, or polyprotein. A gene has a regulatory role. A gene can undergo crossing over and mutation at times. A gene may have continuous or split information.

Classification of genes
GENES

STRUCTURAL

FUNCTIONAL

eukaryotes exon and intron

- promoter gene - operator gene - regulator gene

OPERON
(structural genetic unit of transcription of prokaryotes)
Functional genes Structural genes

Gene regulator

Gene Gene promoter operator

G1

G2

G3

G4

TRANSCRIPTON
(structural genetic unit of transcription of eukaryotes)
Functional genes Structural genes

Gene regulator

Gene promoter

Gene operator

Exon 1

Intron 1

Exon 2 Intron 2

Space regions

Chromosomal level

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CHROMATIN

1.

DNA 40%

2. PROTEINS: ) HISTONES 40%; ) NON-HISTONES 20%; 3. RNA, enzymes, lipids, metal ions.

DNA is Condensed into Visible Chromosomes Only For Brief Periods in the Life of a Cell

95% of the time, chromosomes are uncoiled (chromatin).

Easily visible chromosomes are apparent perhaps 5% of the time in an actively growing cell and less in a non-growing cell.

Levels of chromatin packing

The first level Nucleosome structure

DNA Histone H1

nucleosome

Protein globule (8 histone molecules 2, 2, 3, 4)

The second level - Solenoid (fiber)

Metaphase chromosome (electronic microscopy)

Structure of metaphase chromosome

Upper arms

Centromere

Chromatid

Lower arms

Telomeres

Morphological types of chromosomes

METACENTRIC SUBMETACENTRIC

ACROCENTRIC

TELOCENTRIC

Genome level

Denver classification of human chromosomes

Group A

Group

Group

Group D

Group E

Group F

Group G

Metaphase plate of human chromosomes (electronic microscopy)

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