Outdoor air pollution fundamentals

 Air pollutants
 Air pollution standards and measurement
 Air pollution problems
 Air pollution in Hong Kong
 Air pollution meteorology
 1. Definition of air pollutants
 Air pollution may be defined as the presence in the
atmosphere of substance(s) added directly or indirectly in
such amounts as to affect living and non-living things
adversely.
 What is classified as a pollutant therefore depends upon
recognition of which substances cause adverse effects. It
is an ever-changing definition.
 Centuries ago only soot or odoured gases may have been
considered air pollutant. Now we recognize that pollutants
can cause more subtle effects than producing unpleasants
smells. Even CO2 is now considered a pollutant.

Air Pollution ?
 The key points of air pollution: i) substance; ii) man-made
or naturally produced; iii) with adverse effects to living and
non-living things; and iv) high concentrations or large
amount.
 Questions arise: How do we define the above vague
points? How is adversity defined? At what concentration
should a pollutant be considered high? What are the
substance that should be considered as pollutants?
 2. Common air pollutants

 Particulate matter:
– total suspended particulate (TSP) (typical size <
100 µm)
– respirable suspended particulate (RSP) (typical
size < 10 µm) (PM10, particulate matter of size < 10
µm)
 Gaseous pollutants:
– Primary gaseous pollutants: SOx, NOx, CO, volatile
organic compound (VOC), Pb;
– Secondary gaseous pollutants: peroxyacetylnitrate
(PAN), ozone (O3)
 Photochemical pollutants:
– VOC, O3, PAN, CFC, greenhouse gases (CO2,
H2O)
2.1 Air pollutants sources and
properties
 Natural pollutant sources
❍ Volcano eruption: emitting smoke, particulate
matter, SO2, H2S, CH4…
❍ Fires: emitting smoke, unburnt hydrocarbons,
CO, CO2, NOx...
❍ Dust or sand storms dispersing dust
❍ Oceans are emitting corrosive salt aerosols
❍ Lightning produces NOx and O3
❍ Normal human respiration produces CO2
 Artificial or anthropogenic sources
❍ Stationary sources: combustion, fuel usage,
waste incineration, industrial processes…
❍ Mobile sources: all emissions and exhausts from
transportation
2.2 Sources of air pollutants in Hong
Kong Particulate matter

Pow er generation
36.7%

Aircraft
Marine Vehicle
0.5% Fuel combustion
4.3% 54.8%
3.7%

Sulphur dioxide

Pow er generation Fuel combustion

Vehicle
86.4% 6.6% Marine
1.7%
5.0%
Aircraft
0.3%
 Nitrogen oxides

Pow er generation Vehicle

42.9% 35.8%

Fuel combustion
Aircraft Marine
4.6%
3.6% 13.1%

Carbon monoxide

Fuel combustion Marine

Aircraft
3.2% 2.1%
Vehicle 2.5% Pow er generation
89.3% 2.9%
 2.2 Particulate matter
 typical size varies: gravel
2000µ, sand 20 ~ 1000µ,
hair, 50µ, RSP with
health effects 0.1 ~ 10µ
 Sizes that cause
significant air pollution
problems are 0.01 ~ 50µ,
as larger particles tend to
settle
 Sources of PM: Natural:
wind, sandstorm, forest
fires, volcano eruption;
Anthropogenic: industry,
automobiles
 Size of particles
❍ Large particles (2.5 ~ 250µ): produced in mechanical, crushing,
crashing, milling or grinding processes. Most mechanical
processes cannot produce particles of size smaller than 10µ
❍ Fine particles (0.1 ~ 10µ): produced in combustion, evaporation,
condensation, settling, e.g. tobacco smoke contains particles of
condensed hydrocarbons at 0.01 ~ 1µ. As usual the finer the
size, the more volatile the material.
❍ Agglomeration of fine particles: Fine particles tend to stick
together when they get close together due to electrostatic and
Van Der Waal’s forces.
❍ Aerosols: Particles small enough to remain suspended in the
atmosphere for a long time are referred to as aerosols
 Effects of particulate matter pollutions
❍ Visibility: Particles are able to scatter lights with wavelengths
close to the particle size. Because of this particulate matter
pollutions usually yield hazy days and visible smog. Since
visible lights have wavelength between 0.4 ~ 0.8µ, hazy
days are caused by secondary particles.
❍ Health: Inhalable lung-damaging dust ranges from 0.5 ~ 5µ;
asthma, respiratory syndromes, bronchitis, decreased lung
functions.
❍ Climate: Fine particles can be called condensation nuclei in
meteorology. When wet air reaches saturation condition, the
existence of fine particles makes it easier for water vapour to
condense and form tiny droplets, forming fog and mist. It
also leads to formation of clouds.
 2.3 Gaseous pollutants
 Both N and S are essential to our bodies.
However N and S oxides are strong irritants that
cause health damage at high concentrations.
They also undergo atmospheric reactions to form
PM10 in urban areas.
 N and S oxides react with water and O2 to form
nitric and sulphuric acid, which are principal
contributors to acid rain.
 Both N and S have many sources, the main of
them being combustion or chemical plants.
 S oxides are formed from the sulphur
contaminants in fuels or incomplete combustion in
sulphur ores. N oxides come mainly from
atmospheric nitrogen due to lightning.
  Effects of NOx pollutions
❍ smog problems: respiratory
problems, visibility issues
❍ acid rain
❍ nutrient overload in water:
decreasing water quality
❍ toxic atmosphere
❍ global warming

❍ Since 1970, all air pollutants

have shown a decreasing
trend except NOx, which has
Anthropgenic sources of NOx and SOx increased around 10%.

 Effects of SOx pollutions

❍ PM formation
❍ acid rain
❍ respiratory problems
 2.4 VOC
 VOCs are those organic compounds whose room
temperature vapour pressures are greater than about
0.0007 atm. It usually contains carbon bonded with H, N
or S and can vaporise at significant rates
 VOCs are contributors to the problem of photochemical
oxidants (smogs, ozone): ΝΟx + O2 + VOC → O3 + smog
sunlight
 Some VOCs are infrared absorbers and thus contribute to
greenhouse effects. Other are known to be toxic or
carcinogenic.
 Most VOCs are emitted from smaller sources like
automobiles, paints, solvent usage, nail polish and vanish,
correcting fluids. Plants, due to stringent laws, produce
comparatively less VOC as emissions
 2.5 Ozone
 O3 layer absorbs ~3% of UV radiation. It controls the
amount of incoming and outgoing solar radiation to and
from the Earth surface, thus maintaining a normal evolution
of global climate.
• Ozone occurs in two layers of the atmosphere.
• The layer surrounding the earth's surface is the
troposphere.
• Here, ground-level or "bad" ozone is an air pollutant
• that damages human health, vegetation, and many
common materials. It is a key ingredient of urban smog.
• The stratospheric or "good" ozone layer extends upward
from about 10 to 30 miles and protects life on earth from
the sun's harmful ultraviolet rays (UV-b).
Any chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) molecule in the upper
atmosphere tends to become stripped of a chlorine atom
photochemically, by bombardment with radiation. That
loose atom combines readily with any nearby ozone
molecule, to form normal oxygen and chloro-monoxide:
Cl + O3 → ClO + O2
The monoxide then combines with any available atom of
oxygen in the atmosphere to form normal oxygen and
chlorine: ClO + O → Cl + O2
So the outcome is a chlorine atom, as at the
beginning, once again available to destroy more
ozone. The chlorine thus acts as a catalyst.
This catalytic process occurs most effectively on
a foreign surface, for instance on an ice crystal.
Since the lower stratosphere is cold over
Antarctica in winter, the little water vapour
there is forced to condense in polar
stratospheric clouds. There is good evidence
that every winter the catalytic process of CFCs
virtually totally consumes the ozone between
15~25 km over Antarctica. Any CFC has a
lifetime in the troposphere of ~100 years, so it
can remain available to destroy ozone for a long
time. Even if CFC production were stopped
today, what is in the atmosphere already would
damage the ozone layer for decades.
Nitric oxide, NO, is a catalyst in the same way.
First it reacts with ozone to form oxygen and
nitrogen oxide NO2, and then that reacts with
loose atoms of oxygen to create O2 and NO once
more:
NO + O3 → NO2 + O2
NO2 + O → NO + O2
The reactions occur most readily on the surface of
ice particles found in the winter stratosphere
above Antarctica, where temperatures are ~ -80
°C.

One common misconception:

 In 1985, a team led by
British scientists J. Farman
(1985) shocked the scientific
community by reporting
massive annual decreases of
stratospheric ozone over
Antarctica in the polar
spring.
 In fact such phenomenon
has been detected as early
as 1977 aboard Nimbus-7
satellite, only that the
observations were being
discarded as wrong data.
 Same thing actually happen in
Arctic. However, since temperature
is slightly higher in Arctic, ozone
depletion is less.
 The effect of a compound on
stratospheric ozone depletion is
assessed by the unit ozone
depletion potential (ODP). ODP is
usually defined as the total steady-
state ozone destruction, vertically
integrated over the stratosphere,
that results per unit mass of species
i emitted per year relative to that of
∆O 3,i
CFC-11. ODPi =
∆O 3,CFC−11
 compound ODP
CFC-11 (CFCl3) 1.00
CFC-12 (CF2Cl2) 0.82
CFC-113 (CFCl2CF2Cl) 0.92
CFC-115 (CF2ClCF3) 0.40
HCFC-22 (CF2HCl) 0.04
HFC-225ca (CF3CF2CHCL2) 0.02

 In September 1987, Montréal Protocol on

Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, each
signer agreed to reduce the production of CFC-
11 ~ CFC-114 and halons. Consumption of
these FCFs was frozen at 1986 level from 1989
and is to be reduced to 80% and then 50% of
these values at 1994 and 1999.
 For undeveloped countries, production must not
exceed 110% of the 1986 levels.
 2.6 Greenhouse effect

 The atmosphere absorbs a high fraction of long-wave

radiation of the earth. Greenhouse effect
 Water in vapour form is the principal agent for this
effect. CO2 is the next in importance only. CO2 is not
as important because its concentration is much lower
and its main infrared absorption is localized in a narrow
band near 1.5 x 104 nm.
 However the amount of water in the atmosphere is
fairly constant, whereas the amount of CO2 is
increasing quickly due to rapid growth in industrial
activities for the past century.
3. Local air pollution problems
 Air pollution problems appear in 3 main effects:
❍ Effects on health
Smoke particles that enter and deposited on the alveoli
can cause tuberculosis. Other particles might adsorb
gas which causes more intensive irritation. Gases
and particles might also penetrate into the
bloodstream, e.g. suspended lead from vehicle
exhausts can causes significant nervous problems.
 Ecological effects
Plants and animals are also susceptible to air pollution
effects. Fluorine emitted by factories can damage
plants nearby and significantly lowers the value and
vitality of the crop nearby
 Effects on materials
Many acidic gases, like fluorine, chlorine, SOx, NOx can
attack metals and concrete and etch glass
 3.1 Some severe air pollutions
 London smog (1952)
– Peak daily concentrations nearly 4000 µgm-3 of SOx and 6000
µgm-3 of smoke
 Los Angeles photochemical smog (1940s)
– Huge amount of O3 found by photochemical reactions between
NOx from automobile emissions, peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) and
solar radiation
 Acid rain (1968)
– Buildings damage and ecological changes in Scandinavia
 Bhopal chemical plant accident (1984)
– 3300 people died and more than 200000 suffered from respiratory
and eye diseases when 40 tonnes of methyl-isocyanate (MIC)
were accidentally released
 Chernobyl radiation accident (1986)
– More than 250 curies of radioactive isotopes were
released in a nuclear power plant explosion. Entire
Northern and Eastern Europe were affected. 30
casualties, countless radiation sickness
 Antarctica ozone hole (since 1983)
– Ozone depletion at Antarctica due to CFC
 Forest fire in Indonesia (1997)
– More than 30000 people suffered from respiratory
problems, visibility often less than 30 m, it was
reported that breathing the air was the same as
smoking 100 cigarettes per day.
4. The atmosphere
Average composition of Typical concentrations of
dry clean air by volume various gases in clean air (ppm)
 N2 78.084%  H2O 0 ~ 70000
 O2 20.946%  CO2 360
 Ar 0.934%  CH4 1.5
 CO2 0.036%  CO 0.1
 Ne 0.002%  O3 0.02
 He 0.001% 0.01
 NH3
 ... 0.001
 NO2
0.0002
 SO2
0.0002
 H2S
 Concentrations are usually expressed ‘by volume’
because there is a direct relationship between the
volume, partial pressure and the number of
molecules present. (Dalton’s law)
 In ambient air at 1 atm, there are ~2.693 x 1019
molecules / cm3 (Loschmidt number)
 Two concentration units are commonly used in
reporting atmospheric species abundance
C
concentration of species i in ppm = i ×106
C
where Ci and C are moles/volume of species i and air
mi
mass concentration mi in µgm , Ci =
-3
×10-6
Mi
where M i is the molecular weight of species i
 5. Air quality standards

 The legislative basis for air pollution abatement in the USA

is the 1963 Clean Air Act and its amendments. The Act
and its amendments provide for the establishment of two
kinds of national ambient air quality standards.
 Primary ambient air quality standards: those measures to
protect public health with an adequate margin of safety
 Secondary ambient air quality standards: specify a level of
pollutant concentrations requisite to the public welfare from
any known or anticipated adverse effects associated with
the presence of such air pollutants in the air. These effects
include damage to crops and vegetation, wildlife, visibility,
climate and economy.
 Air quality standards are based solely on the effects of air
pollution, not by scientific or economical standards.
 Three kinds of studies have been conducted: animal
testing, short-term exposures to human volunteers, and
epidemiological studies.
 National air quality standards (1997): standards not to be
exceeded once a year
Pollutant Averaging time Primary (µgm-3) Secondary (µgm-3)
SOx annual 80
daily 365
PM10 annual 50 50
daily 150 150
PM2.5 annual 15 15
daily 65 65
CO 8 hours 10 10
1 hour 40
VOC 3 hours 160 160
NOx annual 100 100
Pb 3 months 1.5 1.5
O3 8 hours 80 80
  Air quality objectives of Hong Kong (1987): daily
threshold not more than once a year, hourly threshold
not more than 3 times a year
Concentration in Microgrammes per Cubic Metre (i)

Averaging Time Health Effects of Pollutant at Elevated

Pollutant
1hr 8hrs 24hrs 3mths 1yr Ambient Levels

Respiratory illness; reduced lung function;

Sulphur Dioxide 800 350 80 morbidity and mortality rates increase at higher
levels.

Total Suspended Particulates 260 80 Respirable fraction has effects on health.

Respiratory illness; reduced lung function; cancer

Respirable Suspended
180 55 risk for certain particles; morbidity and mortality
Particulates (v)
rates increase at higher levels.

Respiratory irritation; increased susceptibility to

Nitrogen Dioxide 300 150 80 respiratory infection; lung development
impairment.

Impairment of co-ordination; deleterious to

Carbon Monoxide 30 000 10 000 pregnant women and those with heart and
circulatory conditions.

Photochemical Oxidants (as Eye irritation; cough; reduced athletic

240
ozone) (vi) performance; possible chromosome damage.

Affects cell and body processes; likely neuro-

psychological effects, particularly in children; likely
Lead 1.5
effects on rates of incidence of heart attacks,
strokes and hypertension.
 5.1 Air pollution index

 The Air Pollution Index (API) of USA is the compact

expression of the air quality levels referring to five major
pollutants: PM10, SO2, CO, O3, and NO2, based on the
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS).
 The Hong Kong API is based upon the Hong Kong Air
Quality Objectives (HKAQO). Our API is slightly more
sophisticated and is comprised of 9 sub-indices: TSP
(daily average), RSP/PM10 (daily average), SO2 (daily
average), SO2 (hourly average), NO2 (daily average),
NO2 (hourly average), CO (8-hour average), CO (hourly
average) and O3 (hourly average).
  Calculations of API:
 1) Calculate sub-index Ii of the ith pollutant
X i − X i, j
Ii = ( I i, j +1 − I i, j ) + I i , j X i, j < X i < X i , j +1
X i , j +1 − X i , j
❍ Xi observed concentration for the ith pollutant
❍ Xi,j concentration for the ith pollutant and the jth breakpoint
❍ Xi,j+1concentration for the ith pollutant and the (j+1) breakpoint
❍ Ii,j API value for the ith pollutant and the jth breakpoint
❍ Ii,j+1 API value for the ith pollutant and the (j+1)th breakpoint
API TSP RSP SO2 SO2 NO2 NO2 CO CO O3
values Daily Daily Daily Hourly Daily Hourly 8-hour Hourly Hourly
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
50 80 55 80 400 80 150 5 15 120
100 260 180 350 800 150 300 10 30 240
200 375 350 800 1600 280 1130 17 60 400
300 625 420 1600 2400 565 2260 34 90 800
400 875 500 2100 3200 570 3000 46 120 1000
500 1000 600 2620 4000 940 3750 57.5 150 1200
  The maximum of all sub-indices are then selected as
the API
Air Quality Status
Air quality significantly
worse than both short-term
and long-term AQOs.
Air quality worse than both
short-term and long-term
AQOs.
Air quality within the short-
term AQOs but worse than
the long-term.
Air quality within all AQOs.
Air quality well within all
AQOs.
API = Max[ I1 , I 2 ,..., I 9 ]
Air Pollution
API Health Implications [1]
Level
Severe 201 to 500 People with existing heart or respiratory illnesses
will experience significant aggravation of their
symptoms and there will be also widespread
symptoms in the healthy population. These
include eye irritation, wheezing, coughing,
phlegm and sore throat.
Very High 101 to 200 People with existing heart or respiratory illnesses
will notice mild aggravation of their health
conditions. Generally healthy individuals may
also notice some discomfort.
High 51 to 100 Very few people, if any, may notice immediate
health effects. Long-term effects may, however,
be observed if you are exposed to such levels for
a long time.
Medium 26 to 50 None expected for the general population.
Low 0 to 25 None expected.
5.2 Measurement of air pollution
 The air quality monitoring network in Hong Kong of the
Environmental Protection Department (EPD) comprises
fourteen fixed monitoring stations as of July 1999 to meet the
following objectives:-
– To understand air pollution problems in order that cost-effective
policies and solutions can be developed;
– To assess how far standards and targets are being achieved or
violated;
– To assist the assessment of public's exposure to air pollution; and
– To provide public information on current and forecast air quality.
 Other stations have been used in the past and there are
more planned for the future. In addition to the EPD's stations,
other independent monitoring units are operated, for
example, those being operated by the power companies in
order to assess the air quality impact of their power stations.
A typical sampling urban sampling station
High volume RSP and TSP samplers
Solar radiation detector Wind anemometer

Acid rain tapered element oscillating

microbalance - continuous RSP
Gaseous pollutants analyzer Mobile air sampler
6. Air Pollution in Hong Kong

 Chiefly vehicular emission related - TSP, RSP &

photochemical pollution
 Large industrial sources are relatively under control
 Hong Kong is extremely mountainous. This makes
trapping of air pollutants easy. Modelling and prediction of
air pollutants dispersion also becomes difficult.
 Pollution events usually happen in hot summer or winter.
 CARBON MONOXIDE
(8-hour Maximum)

25000
1999

20000
Conce ntration ( g/m3)

15000
1998

Air Quality Objective: 10,000 µ g/m3

1997
10000

1999
1999

1999
5000 1999

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 SULPHUR DIOXIDE
(Annual Average)
100

90
3
Air Quality Object: 80 µ g/m
80

70
Conce ntration ( g/m3)

60

50
1998
40

30
1999 1999
1999 1998
20 1997
1997 1999 1999 1997
1998
10 1999
1999 1997
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 RESPIRABLE SUSPENDED PARTICULATES
(Annual Average)
90

1998
80

1999
70
1997
1999
Concentration ( g/m 3)

3
60 Air Quality Objective: 55µ g/m

1997
50
1999 1999

40 1998
1998
1996
30 1999 1999 1999

1997
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 NITROGEN DIOXIDE
(Annual Average)

140

1998
1995
120

100
1996
3
Conce ntration ( g/m3)

Air Quality Objective: 80 µ g/m

80
1999
1997 1999 1999
1999 1997 1999
60 1999
1997

40 1998 1999 1998

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 OZONE
(Hourly Maximum)

700

1996

600

500
1998
Concentration (µ g/m3)

1999 1999
400
1999 1997
1999
300 1997
3
Air Quality Objective: 240 µ g/m 1999
1996
1999 1996 1996
200
1999
1998 1999

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7. Atmospheric stability

subadiabatic

z0 + dz B

A
z0 superadiabatic

z0 - dz C

adiabatic

T0 - dT T0 T0 + dT
 7.1 Lapse rates

 A lapse rate is the change of temperature with unit rise

of elevation.
 Under adiabatic condition, the lapse rate near the Earth
surface is ~-9.8 K km-1. If the numerical value of the
lapse is greater in magnitude than this value,
superadiabatic lapse; lower, subadiabatic lapse.
 For calculation purposes, meteorologists and
engineers have defined a standard atmospheric lapse
of about by ~-6.5 K km-1 by the approximate average of
all observations. It simply indicates the the adiabatic
assumption is not too appropriate.
What does not the atmosphere always have an
adiabatic lapse rate as its actual profile?
It is because other processes such as winds and solar
heating leading to the dynamic temperature
behaviour is seldom adiabatic. Other processes
exert an equal influence on the prevailing
temperature profile than does the adiabatic rising and
falling of air parcels.
■ One common fallacy: Cold air is more dense,
and therefore heavier than warm air.
Therefore, when the air aloft is colder than the
air near the ground, the atmosphere is
unstable: the cold air will sink and the warm
 7.2 Temperature-elevation curve

 The temperature-elevation curve is the principal

determination of atmospheric stability.
 Suppose an air parcel is at point A on the figure. If
it is displaced suddenly upward or downward, fast
enough to be considered reversible and adiabatic.
It would then move to B or C.
 If the air parcel is displaced slowly, then it could
transfer heat to or from the air around it. The
process is then unadiabatic.
 If the surrounding air has adiabatic lapse rate,
wherever the air parcel moves, it will reach the same
temperature and pressure as the surrounding air.
Because of this, further movement is prohibited. This
condition is neutral stability: simple displacement do
not lead to restoration to original position, nor do they
make the parcel move further.
 When the sun comes up and heats the ground
surface and the air above it, there will be a layer of
warmed air near the ground, where the lapse rate is
practically adiabatic.
 If the surrounding air has a subadiabatic lapse rate,
then if it is moved upwards, it will follow the adiabatic
curve, making itself colder and denser than the
surrounding. Gravity will then drive it back down. If it
is moved downwards, it becomes warmer and less
dense, and gravity will push it upwards. For
whatever disturbance, the parcel will be restored to
its original position. The atmosphere is stable.
 When the ground cools at evening, temperature
increases with height near the ground. This is called
inversion. Because of the difference is temperature
gradient, the situation inside the inversion is
extremely stable.
 If the surrounding air has a superadiabatic lapse rate,
then if it is moved upwards, it will follow the adiabatic
curve, making itself warmer and less dense than the
surrounding. Gravity will then drive it further upward.
If it is moved upwards, it becomes colder and denser
than the surrounding, and gravity will push it further
downwards. Whatever disturbs it from its original
position, the parcel will continue to move away from
its original position. The atmosphere is unstable and
vertical motion is spontaneous if any minute trigger
exists.
 By afternoon, enough heat has been transferred from
the warmed ground to the surrounding. The heated
adiabatic air, extends to large height (~2 km) where it
meets the stable air above. The air there has a
standard lapse rate and thus superadiabatic.
 7.3 Examples of instability

 Thermals : A thermal is a column of warm-air

bubbles, expanding as they rise due to
atmospheric instability. Thermals commonly occur
on warm, calm afternoons above hot grounds.
The air lifts off, entrains more air and bubbles and
form a column of ~1 km vertical height. The lift is
great enough to supportrising
soaring
hot eagles without
air column
flapping their wings.
slowly falling
warm air
warm air column
low near ground
Hot ground pressure
 Tornadoes : A tornado is the
result of extreme instability,
consisting of a violent vortical air
flow and a tapering funnel of
twisting cloud. Although the
formation of tornadoes is similar
to thermals, it depend on three
conditions: 1) a sufficient amount
of convective energy, 2) stable
PBL to prevent thunderstorms to
release instability and 3) strong
increase of wind speed with
respect to height.
 7.4 Mixing heights

 Due to the thermals, there will be

vigorous vertical mixing from the clouds with irregular
ground at ~2 km, and then negligible
tops but flat bottoms
vertical mixing above that. The rising
air columns provide good vertical clouds tops near
mixing and induce large-scale three-mixing height
dimensional turbulence, which
induce horizontal mixing. Pollutants mixing
released at ground-level will be height
mixed uniformly up to that mixing
height, but not above it. Mixing
heights set a limit to air pollutants
dispersions.
8. Effect of atmospheric stability on
air pollutant dispersion
natural adiabatic lapse
 Looping : The plume is formed in
unstable condition. The flow
pattern follows closely that of a
flow past bluff body forming a
turbulent wake behind it.
actual temperature lapse
 Coning : A typical buoyant plume
which grows by mixing. It is
formed in neutral atmospheric
condition. The plume is usually
bifurcated and rises by its own
buoyancy.
 Fanning : The plume is seen to reach
its equilibrium level quickly. The
plume starts off bifurcated by meets
strong inversion and travels stably. It
is formed in stable atmospheric
condition.
 Fumigating : The plume is formed by
being trapped by a strong stable
inversion above and a well mixed
unstable air below it. It occurs usually
in the morning when sunshine causes
the layer beneath the inversion to be
mixed by convection.
 Lofting : If the inversion is
weak, the plume may
penetrate it and then
continue to spread upwards
but not downwards due to
the inversion.
 Thermalling : It is formed
when the thermals are well
developed, and the plume is
carried away by convection
and is broken into lumps.
 Flagging : When the efflux velocity of
the plume is not large enough to
carry the effluent, some pollutants
are trapped near the stack hole. This
is then brought down by gravity.
 Bifurcation : The buoyancy of a hot
plume generates a double vortex
circulation in the plume with an
updraught. This is due to internal
convective motion of the plume