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Modulation of Chromatin Structure
Chromatin structure is dynamic rather static
Practically we can consider modulation of
chromatin structure at two levels: effects on
nucleosome and effects on higher order structure
Transcription factor binding to DNA is
inhibited within nucleosomes
• Chromatin assembly inhibits transcription by all three RNA
polymerases in vitro.
• In vivo genetic evidence links histones to repression (and activation as
well).
• Affinity of transcription factor for its binding site on DNA is decreased
when the DNA is reconstituted into nucleosomes.
• The binding of TBP to the TATA box is very sensitive to chromatin
assembly in vitro.
• Extent of inhibition is dependent on:
– Location of the binding site within the nucleosome.
• binding sites at the edge are more accessible than the center
– The type of DNA binding domain.
• Zn fingers bind more easily than bHLH domains.
Stimulate binding of transcription
factors to nucleosomes
• Cooperative binding of multiple factors.
• The presence of histone chaperone
proteins which can compete H2A/H2B
dimers from the octamer.
• Acetylation of the Nterminal tails of the
core histones
• Nucleosome disruption by ATPdependent
remodeling complexes.
Mechanisms for chromatin remodeling
–Modulation by incorporation of histone variants
–Modulation by ATPdriven chromatin remodeling complexes
–Modulation by enzymes that posttranslationally modify
histones
Acetylation
Methylation
Ubiqitination
Phosphorylation
ADPribosylation
There are
a large
number of
Histone
H2A
variants.
The
function of
these
variants
are just
begun to
be
revealed
Modulation by Histone Variants
• In addition to the major histones H2A, H2B, H3
and H4, many organisms also have distinct
batteries of histone variants
– H2AZ and H2AX
H2AZ has been shown to associate with actively
transcribed chromatin regions
H2AX has been shown to be crucial for chromatin
decompaction during DNA repair. Phosphorylation on its
SQE/DØ sequence is one of the earliest events in
response to doublestrand DNA breaks
– H3.3 and CenH3s (CenpA in human)
H3.3 is a replacement H3 variant
CenH3s are centromerespecific H3 variants
• Histones H2B and H4 have very few variants
Histone H3 variants
CenpA is required for the specific structure and
function in centromere
Conclusions
The chromatin structure and function can be
different dependent on the presence or absence of
histone variants because their differences in amino
acid sequences and conformations. We are still at
the very early phase in term of understanding the
roles of histone variants.
Remodeling by ATPdriven
chromatin remodeling complexes
• Yeast SWI/SNF
– 10 proteins
– Needed for expression of genes involved in matingtype
switching and sucrose metabolism (sucrose non
fermenting).
– Some suppressors of swi or snf mutants are mutations
in genes encoding histones.
– SWI/SNF complex interacts with chromatin to activate a
subset of yeast genes.
– Is an ATPase
• Mammalian homologs: hSWI/SNF
– ATPase is BRG1, related to Drosophila Brahma
• Other remodeling ATPase have been discovered.
Partial list of chromatin remodeling
complexes
Complex Organism Factor
SWI/SNF Yeast swi/snf
RCS Yeast sth1
NRUF Drosophila ISWI
CHRAC Drosophila ISWI
ACF Drosophila ISWI
BRM Drosophila BRM
BRG1 Mammals BRG
hBRM Mammals BRM
associated
complexes
Chromatin Remodeling Factors
ATPase
Species subunit
Yeast SWI/SNF complex SWI/SNF2
RSC complex STH1
•Remodeling activity is dependent on or associated with ATP hydrolysis.
•NTP binding subunit possesses DNAstimulated ATPase activity.
•Postulated that the NTP binding subunit acts as a processive, ATPdriven DNA
translocating motor that disrupts histoneDNA interactions.
How do chromatin remodeling
complexes work?
• Structural alteration
• Nucleosome sliding
• Nucleosome eviction
The consequence of chromatin remodeling is
dependent on the type of chromatin
remodeling complexes involved
Remodeling by SWI/SNF
SWI/SNF + ATP
Nucleosome
Based on in vitro studies using
reconstituted nucleosome and
purified SWI/SNF complexes
1. Structural alteration
2. Generation of stable dimers
3. Octamer transfer
Chromatin remodeling ATPases catalyze
stable alteration of the nucleosome
II: form a stably remodeled dimer, altered DNAse digestion pattern
III: transfer a histone octamer to a different DNA fragment
Involvement of SWI/SNF in transcription
• The SWI/SNF complex is required for transcriptional activation of 5%
yeast genes.
• Can be recruited directly through interaction with DNA binding
transcription factors.
• Can be recruited indirectly by interaction with other transcriptional
coactivators or along with the RNA polymerase holoenzyme.
• Other unidentified chromatin-remodeling activities might be recruited by
pathways as yet undefined.
• SWI/SNF complex exerts its major effect in transcriptional activation at a
step subsequent to transcriptional activator-promoter recognition.
• In the yeast, the SWI/SNF complex has been proposed to antagonize the
repressive effects of chromatin by disrupting nucleosomes.
• Dependent on the chromatin organization as well as the transcription
factors involved, the SWI/SNF also contributes to transcriptional
repression.
Nucleosome sliding induced by ISWI
containing complexes
TF
Evenly spaced
nucleosomes
Stable, low energy
state
Allow TF to bind
• Make nucleosome mobile in the presence of ATP
• Also involve in nucleosome/chromatin assembly
• Have roles in both transcriptional activation and repression
Recent evidence: nucleosome
eviction as a result of chromatin
remodeling by SWI/SNF
Yeast Pho5 gene
Induction with low phosphate
Swi4/ Pol II
swi6
• Promoter region is DNase I hypersensitive upon induction
• Promoter region contains less histones after induction
Remodeling by covalent modification
of histones in chromatin
Multiple modifications and enormous potential
combinations
Two types of Histone
Acetyltransferases (HATs).
• Type A nuclear HATs: acetylate histones in
chromatin.
• Type B cytoplasmic HATs: acetylate free
histones prior to their assembly into
chromatin.
– Acetylate K5 and K12 in histone H4
Acetylation by nuclear HATs is associated
with transcriptional activation
• Highly acetylated histones are associated with actively
transcribed chromatin
– Increasing histone acetylation can turn on some genes.
– Immunoprecipitation of DNA crosslinked to chromatin with
antibodies against Achistones enriches for actively transcribed
genes.
• Acetylation of histone Nterminal tails affects the ability of
nucleosomes to associate in higherorder structures
– The acetylated chromatin is more “open”
• DNase sensitive
• accessible to transcription factors and polymerases
• HATs are implicated as coactivators of genes in
chromatin, and HDACs (histone deacetylases) are
implicated as corepressors
Nuclear HAT As are coactivators
• Gcn5p is a transcriptional activator of many genes
in yeast. It is also a HAT.
• PCAF (P300/CBP associated factor) is a HAT and
is homologous to yeast Gcn5p.
• P300 and CBP are similar proteins that interact
with many transcription factors (e.g. CREB, AP1
and MyoD).
• P300/CBP are needed for activation by these
factors, and thus are considered coactivators.
• P300/CBP has intrinsic HAT activity as well as
binding to the HAT PCAF.
Table 1. HAT families and their transcription-related functions
(adapted from Marmorstein and Roth, 2001)
HAT family Members Function
GNAT Gcn5, PCAF, Ada, Coactivator
SAGA Replication dependent
Hat1 chromatin assembly
Elp3, Hpa2
HAT complexes often contain several
transcription regulatory proteins.
• Example of the SAGA complex components:
• Gcn5: catalytic subunit, histone acetyl transferase
• Ada proteins
– transcription adaptor proteins required for function of
some activators in yeast.
• Spt proteins (TBPgroup)
– regulate function of the TATAbinding protein.
• TAF proteins
– associate with TBP and also regulate its function.
• Tra1
– homologue of a human protein involved in cellular transformation.
– May be direct target of activator proteins.
Roles of histone acetylation
• Increase access of transcription factors to
DNA in nucleosomes.
• Decondense 30nm chromatin fibers
• Serve as markers for binding of nonhistone
proteins (e.g. bromodomain proteins).
Effect of Histone Acetylation on
Chromatin Structure and Transcription
Histone deacetylation is catalyzed by
histone deacetylases and associated
with transcriptional repression
Histone deacetylases (HDACs):
2. Three classes, about 20 identified members.
3. can be recruited by transcriptional repressors to
specific target genes and/or deacetylate
histones in chromatin in a nontargeting, global
fashion.
4. Acetylation and deacetylation are very dynamic
events
5. Aberrant histone deacetylation has been linked
to cancer
Effect of Histone Acetylation on
Chromatin Structure and Transcription
Repression
Activation
Information about three classes of
HDACs
• Class I HDACs are relatively small in size,
abundant, ubiqitously expressed, mainly nuclear,
sensitive to TSA and tend to associate
corepressor proteins to form large corepressor
complexes.
• Class II HDACs are relatively larger in size, less
abundant, shuffling between cytoplasm and nuclei,
likely tissuespecific and sensitive to TSA.
• Class III HDACs are less well known and involved
in silencing of rRNA genes and telomere silencing
and not sensitive to TSA.
HDAC inhibitors can induce cell differentiation
possibly through induction of p21 and cyclin D1and
has been tested as cancer treatment drugs in
clinical trials
Class I HDACs are found in large protein
complexes
HDAC3 HDAC1/2
TBL1 RbAp46
SMRT/NCoR complexes Sin3A complex
Comparison of Sin3, Mi2/NURD and
SMRT/NCoR class I HDAC complexes
Sin3 Mi2/NURD SMRT/NCoR
HDAC1/HDAC2 HDAC1/HDAC2 HDAC3 Histone
RbAp46 RbAp46 TBL1 deacetylases
WD40 repeat histone
RbAp48 RbAp48 TBLR1 binding proteins
SAP18 MTA2 GPS2
SAP30 MBD3 IR10
Sin3 CHD3/CHD4 SMRT/NCoR Scaffold
proteins
Repression by deacetylation of histones
by SIR2
Methylated DNA can recruit HDACs
Histone Methylation
Histone Methylation
• Two types of HMTs: arginine specificHMTs and lysine
specific HMTs.
• Histone methylation (mono, di and trimethylation) is
known for a long time, but the HMTs responsible for
histone methylation have only recently been identified.
• In contrast to histone acetylation, histone methylation is
stable. Turnover rate of histone methylation is similar to
that of histone turnover.
• The first identified Argspecific HMT is Carm1/PRMT1. It
can methylates Arg2, Arg17 and Arg26 in H3. It functions
as a transcriptional coactivator for nulcear hormone
receptor.
• The first identified Lysspecific HMT is SUV391, based on
its similarity to plant protein metyltransferase. The
enzymatic activity resides in the highly conserved SET
(Suppressor of variegation, Enhancer of Zeste and
Trithorax) domain.
Nature (Article) 406, 593599. Aug. 10, 2000
Regulation of chromatin structure by
sitespecific histone H3 methyltransferases
Stephen Rea, Grank Eisenhaber, Donal O’Carroll, Brian D. Strahl, ZuWen Sun, Manfred Schmid,
Susanne Opravil, Karl Mechtler, Chris P. Ponting, C. David Allis & Thomas Jenuwein
1. Human and murine SUV39H1 contains a SET domain
resembling plant methyltransferase proteins
2. Human and murine SUV39H1 is a H3 K9 Specific HMTase
3. Mapped the catalytic motif (SET domain plus the adjacent
cysteinerich regions)
4. K9 methylation interferes with S10 phosphorylation
5. Suv39h1 null cells have heterochromatin defects
Approaches for identification and
characterization of HMTs
1. Biochemical purification of HMT activities using in vitro
HMT assay.
2. Sequence similarity: testing the proteins containing a SET
domain.
Summary of Known HMTases and Their Target Sites
PRMT1 H4 R3 activation
Suv39H1/Clr4/ESET/ H3 K9 silencing
ySET1/mSET9/mSET7 H3 K4 Silencing and elongation
Underlining mechanisms
• H4R3 methylation facilitates acetylation of
H4 by p300 (why it is associated with
activation.
• H3K9 methylation creates a binding site for
HP1 and HP1 is known to associate with
HDACs and involved in heterochromatin
formation (why it is involved in repression)
• The underlining mechanism for many other
modifications is not clear
Histone phosphorylation
• Phosphorylation on Ser10 of H3 is involved in
both transcriptional activation and in chromosome
condensation during mitosis.
• Phosphorylation on Ser10 of H3 facilitates
acetylation of histone H3 on Lys9 and Lys14.
• Phosphorylation of histone H2X variant is involved
in DNA repair
• Many Ser and Thr sites in histone tails can be
phosphorylated. In most cases the functional
consequence is not clear.
Histone Ubiqitination
• H2A (Lys119) and H2B (Lys123) can be
monoubiqitinated.
• Monoubiqitination is not associated with
protein degradation by proteasome
pathway.
• H2B ubiqitination in yeast is catalyzed by
Rad6 and is required for methylation on Lys
4 and Lys79. The underlining mechanism is
unknown.
Interplay Between Different Histone Modifications
Me
Me Me Ac p Ac Me Ac Ac Me Me p
Human H3 NARTKQTARKSTGGKAPRKQLATKAARKSAP...
4 9 14 18 23 27
Me
Me Ac Ac Ac Ac Me
Human H4 AcNSGRGKGGKGLGKGGAKRHRKVLRDNIQGIT...
3 5 8 12 16 20
Multiple modifications and enormous potential
combinations: histone code theory
‘Histone Code’ and How the Code be Read?
Histone code hypothesis: that multiple histone modifications, acting in
combinatorial or sequential fashion on one or multiple histone tails,
specify unique downstream functions.
How the histone code be read?
Likely read by specific protein domains
Code Protein Motif
AcLys Bromo
MeK9 HP1 Chromo
MeK27 Polycomb Chromo
PhosS10 ?
Different combinations ?
Optimal transcriptional activation
requires multiple chromatin remodeling
factors
Functional interplay among different
chromatin remodeling factors?
The functions of SWI/SNF and the
SAGA complex are genetically linked
• Some genes require both complexes for
activation.
• Other genes require one or the other complex.
• Many genes require neither presumably utilize
different ATPdependent complexes and/or HATs
The Order of Recruitment?
The yeast HO endonuclease gene requires both SWI/SNF
and SAGA
• The order of recruitment at the HO promoter:
– 1. SWI5 activator: sequence recognition
– 2. SWI/SNF complex: remodel nucleosomes
– 3. SAGA: acetylate histones
– 4. SBF activator (still at specific sequences)
– 5. general transcription factors
• Cosma, Tanaka and Nasmyth (1999) Cell 97:299
311.
• The order is likely to differ at different genes
A scenario for transitions from
silenced to open to actively
transcribed chromatin
Movement from hetero to euchromatin
Nucleosome
remodelers
and HATs
further open
chromatin
Assembly of
preinitiation
complex on
open
chromatin