Topic 2- Atomic Structure

IB Chemistry SL
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2.1 The structure of atoms

Most atoms contain protons, electrons, and neutrons. A neutron has a mass that is slightly greater than, but almost the same as, that of a proton (mass of a proton- 1.66x10-27 kg). A proton has a positive charge, while a neutron has a neutral (no) charge. Protons and neutrons are called nucleons, and are both found in the nucleus.

 Electrons are very tiny in comparison to protons and neutrons (its mass is 1/1830 [around 1/2000] that of a proton.) Electrons have negative charges, and orbit the nucleus of an atom. The charges of protons and electrons are equal in strength, but are opposite in polarization (+, -) Therefore, an atom with equal numbers of electrons and protons has no overall charge.

Proton

Relative Mass 1

Relative Charge +1

Neutron
Electron

1
5 x 10-4

0
-1

Isotopes of Elements
All elements can be characterized by two numbers: the atomic number and the mass number Atomic number (Z)- equal to the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom; also the number of electrons (since charge neutrality must be maintained); atoms of different elements have different atomic numbers

 Mass number (A)- number of protons and neutrons in an atom; if two atoms of the same element have different mass numbers, then one is an isotope. Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons from the standard. Atoms of the same element will always have the same number of protons, but the number of neutrons may vary.

 Isotopes of atoms are written in the following format: AZX , where A is the mass number, Z is the atomic number, and X is the elemental symbol Examples: 3517Cl- 17 protons, 18 neutrons 3717Cl- 17 protons, 20 neutrons Ions- charge is written to top right of element symbol- Na+, K+, Cl-, O-2, Br-, Ca+2

Properties of Isotopes
Isotopes have identical chemical properties as the standard atoms (chemical properties are based on electron arrangement.) However, isotopes will have different physical properties, because the isotopes will have different masses than the standard atoms. Density, rate of diffusion, melting point, and boiling points will differ

Uses of Isotopes
Some isotopes are radioactive (radioisotopes.) Uses for radioisotopes include- nuclear power generation, sterilization of surgical instruments, crime detection, metal stress detection, food preservation, artifact dating, and medical diagnosis and treatment (radiology.)

2.2 The Mass Spectrometer

Machine that determines the mass of individual elements. Principle of operation- positively charged particles pass through a magnetic field that deflects the ions along a circular path on a radius that is proportional to the mass to charge ratio, m/e

Steps
Vaporization- atoms are vaporized either before/immediately after injection. Ionization- vapor is ionized by bombarding vapor with a stream of high energy electrons to make positive ions- M(g) + e- M+(g) + 2e-. Acceleration- positive ions pass through holes in parallel plates, where they are accelerated.

 Deflection- ions are deflected by an external magnetic field- heavier/less charged ions are deflected less; lighter/more charged ions are deflected more. Detection- detector measures mass to charge ratio and the relative amounts of ions present. From this, the mass spectrum for an element can be determined.

Diagram

Calculation of Relative Atomic Mass

Relative atomic mass can be calculated from mass spectrum; equal to weighted mean mass of all naturally occurring isotopes of that element relative to 1/12 of Carbon-12 Draw spectrum on board

 Total detector current (sum of values)6.83+9.13+2.60+12.17+2.60= 33.33 Abundance of germanium-70= charge for germanium-70/total charge 6.83/33.33=20.5% All relative abundances are calculated in the same way. Ar= (70x20.5)+(72x27.4)+(73x7.8)+(74x36.5)+(76x7.8)/100 Ar= 72.7

2.3 Electron arrangement

When metal ions are heated, have electricity added to them, etc., they release energy in the form of colored light, which is a form of electromagnetic radiation. Each color has a specific wavelength and frequency, and all of the colors released are in the visible light spectrum. Each color also has a particular amount of energy.

The electromagnetic spectrum

EM waves can travel through space and matter There are two relationships between the speed of light [m/s], wavelength () [m], and frequency (f) [1/sec]. C=xf EM radiation is also a form of energy, and its energy [J] is related to its frequency [1/sec] and Planks Constant (h) [6.63x10-23 J s] E=hxf

 Smaller wavelengths have higher frequency and more energy Larger wavelengths have lower frequency and less energy The EM spectrum has a range of wavelengths from high-energy gamma () radiation to low energy radio waves.

Emission Spectra
When observed through a spectrometer, each of the elements gives its own colors and lines at fixed wavelengths- this is the emission spectrum of the element. Emission spectra are not continuous, but are separate lines that converge on the higher end of the spectrum. The EM spectrum is a continuous spectrum, while the emission spectrum is a line spectrum.

 Each series (ultraviolet, infrared, radio, microwave, gamma wave, etc.) has its own set of lines that converge at the higher end of the spectrum (convergence point.) Note: the letter n is used to describe which energy level an electron is on. This is the known as the principal quantum number.

Explanation of emission spectrum

Electrons travel in orbits around the nucleus of an atom, and each orbit corresponds to a fixed energy level or shell. Addition of energy to an electron will cause it to rise to a higher energy level (ground state excited state.) When the electron falls back down, light (a quantum) with a specific energy is emitted (this energy corresponds to a particular wavelength of light; one of the separate lines on the emission spectrum.)

 From this, the line spectrum is formed- why?electrons can only exist at fixed energy levels, not in between. When an electron falls just 1 energy level, light with a large wavelength (relative to the series) is released. When the electron falls 2 energy levels, more energy is released. As the electron falls more energy levels, more energy is released, until the electron falls from infinity energy levels (which is the point of convergence on the emission spectrum.)

 Electrons dropping to the lowest energy level (n=1) emit the most energy, so the ultraviolet spectrum for hydrogen is produced. The visible spectrum occurs when electrons fall to the second energy level (n=2.) The first infrared series of the hydrogen spectrum occurs when electrons fall to the third energy level (n=3.)

Electron arrangement
Each energy level as described by the principal quantum number can only contain a certain number of electrons. Generally, when an energy level is full, the electrons will begin to fill on the next energy level. Exception- third energy level- after 8 electrons are on n=3, 2 electrons are added to n=4, then 10 more electrons complete the third energy level.

Energy Level 1 2 3

Number of Electrons 2 8 8/18

 Atomic numbers can be used to determine the atomic electron arrangements, as the atomic number determined the number of electrons in a neutral atom.

Element H He

Electron Arrangement 1 2 (first level full)

Element Na Mg

Electron Arrangement 2.8.1 2.8.2

Li
Be B C N O F Ne

2.1
2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 (second level full)

Al
Si P S Cl Ar K Ca

2.8.3
2.8.4 2.8.5 2.8.6 2.8.7 2.8.8 (third full) 2.8.8.1 2.8.8.2

 2.8.8.2 First level- 2 electrons Second level- 8 electrons Third level- 8 electrons Fourth level- 2 electrons

Picture citations
http://www.kollewin.com/EX/09-1503/electromagnetic-spectrum.jpg http://www.mhhe.com/physsci/chemistry/carey /student/olc/graphics/carey04oc/ch13/figures/1 334.gif General- IB Chemistry Course Companion, Geoffrey Neuss, Second Edition