CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

Lizamarie C. Olegario U.P. College of Education

86.Teacher Tala always considers the family background of her students to better understand them. Which principle is considered here?

a) Maturation precedes certain types of learning b) Development rates vary among individuals c) Each stage of development has characteristic traits d) Development of an organism is the result of heredity and environment interaction

Biopsychosocial Perspective on Development

87. In a research conducted by Jerome Kagan, almost one-third of a group of children who had an inhibited temperament at 2 years of age were not unusually shy or fearful when they were four years old. What does this prove?

a) Development ends after infancy. b) Latter experiences do not change the impact of early experiences c) Development continues after infancy. d) Early experiences are the sole determiners in the development of persons.

Jerome Kagan
At early ages
inhibited children
cling to their mothers and may cry and hesitate when confronted with unfamiliar persons or events appear to be timid and shy

Uninhibited or exuberant children

approach new events and persons without hesitation or trepidation appear fearless and sociable

These characteristic profiles tended to continue

Malleability
the extent to which temperament can be influenced or reshaped by later life events Individual children may change and become more or less inhibited while the groups of children remain distinct on average Temperament and environment both influence development, although relatively few researchers have studied the interaction of these two influences as of the early 2000s.

Jerome Kagan
has shown how different parenting styles can shape a timid, shy child who perceives the world as a threat measured babies at 4 months and at school age The fearful children whose parents (over)protected them were still timid. Those whose parents pushed them to try new things -"get into that sandbox and play with the other kids, dammit!" -- lost their shyness. A genetic legacy of timidity was shaped by parental behavior "and these kids became far less fearful

88.Which is/are the basic assumption/s of behaviorists?

I. II. The mind of a newborn child is a blank slate. All behaviors are determined by environmental events behavior can change as a result of extrinsic motivators such as incentives, rewards, and punishments. III. The child has a certain degree of freedom not to allow himself to be shaped by his environment. IV. View learners as mechanical responders. V. Rely on both experiential and discovery learning. A. B. C. D. I, II and III II, III, and IV I, II, and IV I, II, III, and V

Assumptions of behaviorism:
1) The primary means of investigating learning is by observation. 2) Principles of learning apply equally to different behaviors and to different species of animals. Behaviorists typically state that human beings and other animals learn in similar ways.

Assumptions of behaviorism:
3) Learning processes can be studied most objectively when the focus of study is on stimuli and responses. Typically learning is described as a stimulus and response relationship, S = R. 4) Internal cognitive processes are largely excluded from scientific study.

Assumptions of behaviorism:
5) Learning involves a behavior change. Some behaviorists proposed that if no observable change happens, then no learning has happened. 6) Organisms are born as blank slates. Organisms are not born with any predispositions to be made in certain ways. Since each organism has a different experience with the environment, each will have a different set of behaviors.

Assumptions of behaviorism:
7) Learning is largely the result of environmental events. Behaviorists tend to use the term conditioning instead of learning to reflect this. The most useful theories tend to be universal ones. 8) The learning of all behavior is best explained by as few learning principles as possible.

89.Teacher Marissa is convinced that whenever as student performs a desired behavior, provide him/her reinforcement and soon the student learns to perform the behavior on his/her own. On which principle is the conviction based?

a) b) c) d)

Social Cognitivism Behaviorism Constructivism Cognitivism

Learning Theories
Behaviorism:
Discuses behaviors that can be observed. Behaviorism does not fully consider the thought processes that go on in the learners mind. Stimulus and responses as derived from the work of Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike, Skinner, an Gagne promoted and experimented in the behaviorism. Behaviorism is applied in different educational areas including systems approach, computer-assisted learning, development of objectives etc. In instructional design, the curriculum and behavioral objectives include learning tasks, divided (chunked) into distinct quantifiable tasks through analysis.

Learning Theories
Cognitivism:
It deals with the internal mental processes of the mind and how these processes could be used to endorse effective learning. The tasks are first analyzed and then broken down into steps. These chunks of information are then used to enlarge learning in instructional design curriculum. Information is then organized and delivered or taught from the most simple to the most complex depending on the learners prior schema or knowledge. Dewey, Piaget, Vygotsky, and Gagne are a few of the theorists associated with cognitivism.

Learning Theories
Constructivism:
Founded on the premise that, by learners reflecting on their experiences, and thereafter constructing their own understanding of their world. The learners generate their own "rules" and "mental models," which they use to make sense of their experiences. Constructivism principles in instructional design curriculum are applied in the use of the hypertext and hypermedia, where the learner can gain access to a wider area of learning, by controlling what elements they access.

Phases in a Behaviorist Lesson

Orientation: overview, explains why, etc.

Phases (cont.)
Presentation: explain how to, steps, demonstrate how to.
Presented in very small steps with mastery of each step the goal Numerous examples with teacher demonstrating correct responses When difficulty is encountered, additional explanations and examples given. Constant evaluation of ALL students understanding.

Phases (cont.)
Practice phase
Structured practice: whole class led through each step of the problem with teacher leading and checking for everyones understanding. Guided practice: students work on a few examples alone at their desks. Teacher circulates and monitors, providing corrective feedback and reinforcement Independent practice: students given a few examples just like what had been learned to practice alone. Feedback is not necessarily immediate (i.e. next day).

90.Miss Cortez is teaching a three-year old boy how to put on his shirt. She might first rewarded him for placing his right arm in the right sleeve, then the left arm in the left sleeve, then buttoning the front of the shirt, then tucking into his pants. This technique is called______________.

a) b) c) d)

Fading Reinforcement Chaining Conditioning

Chaining
the procedure for building chains
Behavior chain
a series of related behaviors Each provides the cue for the next and the last that produces a reinforcer.

the reinforcement of successive elements of a behavior chain Two chaining procedures

forward backward chaining

Chaining
FORWARD CHAINING:
start with the first task in the chain

BACKWARD CHAINING: begins with the last element in the chain and proceeds to the first element.

Rules for Chaining

Define the target behavior
take notice of all the steps involved task analysis

Reinforce successive elements of the chain Monitor Results Shaping

always moves forward there is no such thing as backward shaping

91. In behavior modification, schedules of reinforcement can control target behaviors. The following are examples of fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement, EXCEPT:

a) For every five targeted appropriate behavior that occur, reinforcement is delivered. b) Every time Allan says the magic word please he is rewarded with a hug by the teacher. c) When six pages of worksheets are completed with 90% accuracy, Raphael gets to play his favorite computer game. d) After stacking colored bricks following a pattern with 95% accuracy, the kindergarten children will have an early access.

Reinforcement Schedules
Fixed Interval Schedules: the target response is reinforced after a fixed amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement. Variable Interval Schedules: similar to fixed interval schedules, but the amount of time that must pass between reinforcement varies. Fixed Ratio Schedules: a fixed number of correct responses must occur before reinforcement may recur.

Reinforcement Schedules
Variable Ratio Schedules: the number of correct repetitions of the correct response for reinforcement varies. Variable interval and especially, variable ratio schedules produce steadier and more persistent rates of response because the learners cannot predict when the reinforcement will come although they know that they will eventually succeed.

92. Which is not an application of the cognitive approach to motivation?

Begin lessons with challenging questions/conflicting events Explain reasons for studying the topic Create a supportive classroom climate Provide clear and prompt feedback on assignments

Cognitive Approaches to Motivation

Attribution Theory (Weiner)
proposes that every individual tries to explain success or failure of self and others by offering certain "attributions." These attributions are either internal or external and are either under control or not under control.

Cognitive Approaches to Motivation

Weiners Expanded Attributional Theory
Internal Controllable Stable Long-term effort Uncontrollable Aptitude External Controllable Uncontrollable

Instructor bias/ Ease/ difficulty favoritism of school or course requirements

Unstable Skills/ knowledge Temporary or situational effort for exam

Health on day of exam Mood

Chance Help from friends/ teacher

Cognitive Approaches to Motivation

Attribution Theory (Weiner)
In a teaching/learning environment, it is important to assist the learner to develop a selfattribution explanation of effort (internal, control).

Cognitive Approaches to Motivation

Expectancy Theory (Vroom, 1964) which proposes the following equation: Motivation = Perceived Probability of Success (Expectancy) * Connection of Success and Reward (Instrumentality) * Value of Obtaining Goal (Valance, Value)

Cognitive Approaches to Motivation

Cognitive Dissonance by Leon Festinger (1957)
when there is a discrepancy between two beliefs, two actions, or between a belief and an action, we will act to resolve conflict and discrepancies.

93. The teachers role in the classroom according to cognitive psychologists is to:

a) Make the learning task easy for the learner b) Help the learner connect what she/he knows with new information from the teacher c) Dictate what to learn upon the learner d) Fill the minds of the learner with information

General educational implications of cognitive theories:

1. Cognitive processes influence learning. 2. Learning difficulties often indicate ineffective or inappropriate cognitive processes, especially for children with learning disabilities, who tend to process information less effectively.
Teachers need to be aware that all students are trying to learn something, as well as what they are trying to learn.

3. As children grow, they become capable of increasingly more sophisticated thought.

General educational implications of cognitive theories:

4. People organize the things they learn.

Teachers can facilitate students' learning by presenting information in an organized manner. This organization should reflect students' previous knowledge and show how one thing relates to the other (i.e., helping students understand and make connections).

5. New information is most easily acquired when people can associate it with things they have already learned.
Teachers should then show how new ideas relate to previous learning. Ultimately students, not their teachers, determine what things will be learned and how they will be learned.

6. People control their own learning.

Cognitivist Teachers
Teach by presenting information in a way which calls upon students' previously acquired knowledge utilize processing strategies in order to help students learn information and retain information once it is learned
mnemonic devices metaphors and analogies rehearsal of information

94. One group of psychologists said "Wait until the child is ready. But who said One can help the child to get ready by developing pre-requisite skills in an interesting and meaningful way?

a) b) c) d)

Gagne Bruner Ebbinghaus Kohler

The Process of Education

The Four Themes:
Structure Readiness for learning Nature of intuition Desire to learn

Three Modes of Representation

Enactive
Motor responses to manipulate the environment

Iconic
Use of mental images that stand for certain objects or events

Symbolic
Symbol system to encode knowledge

Bruners theory on intellectual development

95. Which principle is observed by Ausubels schema theory?

a) Learners have stock knowledge of things based on background information and experiences. b) There is no need to provide background information. c) Children can be taught how to study. d) Teachers must presume that learners know everything.

Ausubels Schema Theory

Two things are necessary for understanding to occur:
(1) the content must be potentially meaningful, and (2) the learner must relate it in a meaningful way to his or her prior knowledge.

Schema Theory: Ausubel

primary process in learning: subsumption
new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure

Cognitive structures
represent the residue of all learning experiences forgetting occurs because certain details get integrated and lose their individual identity.

Schema Theory: Ausubel

Instructional Application:
1. The most general ideas of a subject should be presented first and then progressively differentiated in terms of detail and specificity. 2. Instructional materials should attempt to integrate new material with previously presented information through comparisons and crossreferencing of new and old ideas.

96. Everytime Miss Pilar presents a new unit, she does so with the use of advance organizer. Which principle does she apply?

a) Provide the correct response on the first trial b) Arrange for appropriate practice c) Arrange materials into appropriate learning units d) Assist students to identify meaningful relationships

Advance Organizers
used to provide support for new information can "direct your attention to what is important in the coming material; they highlight relationships among ideas that will be presented; and remind you of relevant information you already have" (Woolfolk, 2001, 288). Types
Expository Organizers: serve to make appropriate prerequisite knowledge available to the learner by providing new information Comparative Organizers: serve to build external connections with existing knowledge that is relevant to the new information by reminding the learner about prior knowledge are

97. Gagne delineates 9 external events in sequential instructional

planning. Which are the first and the last in the sequence?

a) Informing students of the lesson objectives enhancing the retention and transfer of learning. b) Stimulating recall of previous learning assessing student performance. c) Informing students of the lesson objectives assessing student performance. d) Gaining attention enhancing the retention and transfer of learning.

Gagnes 9 Events of Instruction

1. Gaining attention
Giving learner a stimulus to ensure reception of coming instruction Telling learner what they will be able to do for the instruction

2. Informing the learner of the objective

Gagnes 9 Events of Instruction

3. Stimulating recall of prior learning

Asking for recall of existing relevant knowledge

Displaying the content Supplying organization and relevance to enhance understanding

4. Presenting the stimulus 5. Providing learner guidance

Gagnes 9 Events of Instruction

6. Eliciting performance
Asking learners to respond, demonstrating learning Giving immediate feedback on learner's performance.

7. Providing Feedback

Gagnes 9 Events of Instruction

8.

Assessing performance
Providing feedback to learners' more performance for reinforcement Providing diverse practice to generalize the capability

9. Enhancing retention and transfer

98. William Glassers control theory states that behavior is inspired by what satisfies a persons want at any given time. What then must a teacher do to motivate students to learn?

a) Make schoolwork relevant to students basic human needs. b) Avoid giving assignments. c) Organize curriculum in a spiral manner. d) Make teaching-learning interactive.

Control Theory: William Glasser

theory of motivation behavior is never caused by a response to an outside stimulus behavior is inspired by what a person wants most at any given time: survival, love, power, freedom, or any other basic human need.

Choice Theory
Five internal needs: 1. To survive. 2. To belong and be loved by others. 3. To have power and importance. 4. To have freedom and independence. 5. To have fun. Choice aspect: individuals have the power to change their lives for the better based on the choices they make

How Control Theory Impacts Learning

Curriculum
Teachers must negotiate both content and method with students. Students basic needs literally help shape how and what they are taught.

Instruction
Teachers rely on cooperative, active learning techniques that enhance the power of the learners.

How Control Theory Impacts Learning

Lead teachers make sure that all assignments meet some degree of their students need satisfaction

Assessment
Instructors only give good gradesthose that certify quality workto satisfy students need for power. Courses for which a student doesnt earn a good grade are not recorded on that students transcript.

The Ten Axioms of Choice Theory

1. The only person whose behavior we can control is our own. 2. All we can give another person is information. 3. All long-lasting psychological problems are relationship problems. 4. The problem relationship is always part of our present life. 5. What happened in the past has everything to do with what we are today, but we can only satisfy our basic needs right now and plan to continue satisfying them in the future.

The Ten Axioms of Choice Theory

6. We can only satisfy our needs by satisfying the pictures in our Quality World. 7. All we do is behave. 8. All behaviors are Total Behaviors and are made up of four components: acting, thinking, feeling and physiology. All Total Behaviors are chosen, but we only have direct control over the acting and thinking components. 9. We can only control our feeling and physiology indirectly through how we choose to act and think. 10. All Total Behavior is designated by verbs and named by the part that is the most recognizable

How this is done

1) What do you want? 2) What are you doing to achieve what you want? 3) Is it working? 4) What are your plans or options?

How the Control (Choice) Theory Impacts Classroom Learning

Students' basic needs literally help shape how and what they are taught. Teachers rely on cooperative, active learning techniques that enhance the power of the learners. Instructors only give "good grades"--those that certify quality work--to satisfy students' need for power.

Seven Caring Habits

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Supporting Encouraging Listening Accepting Trusting Respecting Negotiating differences

Seven Deadly Habits

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Criticizing Blaming Complaining Nagging Threatening Punishing Bribing, rewarding to control

The Six Conditions of Quality Schoolwork

1. There must be a warm, supportive classroom environment. 2. Students should be asked to do only useful work. 3. Students are always asked to do the best that they can do. 4. Students are asked to evaluate their own work and improve it. 5. Quality work always feels good. 6. Quality work is never destructive.

99. Which of the following is NOT true about Vygotskys scaffolded instruction?
a) Teachers support students until they can apply the new skills independently. b) Teachers support gradually increases until mastery is manifested by student. c) Responsibility for learning shifts from teacher to students. d) Teachers ensure that students have the necessary support to learn successfully.

Vygotskys Scaffolding Instruction

The scaffolding teaching strategy provides individualized support based on the learners ZPD (Chang, Sung, & Chen, 2002).
The zone of proximal development is the distance between what children can do by themselves and the next learning that they can be helped to achieve with competent assistance (Raymond, 2000, p.176).

a more knowledgeable other provides scaffolds or supports to facilitate the learners development facilitate a students ability to build on prior knowledge and internalize new information Temporary
As the learners abilities increase the scaffolding provided by the more knowledgeable other is progressively withdrawn. Finally the learner is able to complete the task or master the concepts independently (Chang, Sung, & Chen, 2002, p. 7)

the goal of the educator : for the student to become an independent and self-regulating learner and problem solver (Hartman, 2002)

Vygotskys Scaffolding Instruction

The scaffolds provided are activities and tasks that:
Motivate or enlist the childs interest related to the task Simplify the task to make it more manageable and achievable for a child Provide some direction in order to help the child focus on achieving the goal Clearly indicate differences between the childs work and the standard or desired solution Reduce frustration and risk Model and clearly define the expectations of the activity to be performed (Bransford, Brown, and Cocking, 2000).

Vygotskys Scaffolding Instruction

Scaffolds may include models, cues, prompts, hints, partial solutions, think-aloud modeling and direct instruction (Hartman, 2002) cooperative learning: students help students in small group settings but still have some teacher assistance.

Vygotskys Scaffolding Instruction

According to McKenzie, scaffolding:
clear direction and reduces students confusion Clarifies purpose helps students understand why they are doing the work and why it is important Keeps students on task Clarifies expectations and incorporates assessment and feedback examples of exemplary work, rubrics, and standards of excellence are shown to the students. Points students to worthy sources Reduces uncertainty, surprise, and disappointment

100. Oedipus and electra complexes are reactivated at this stage but directed toward other persons of opposite sex. Which stage is this according to Freud?

a) b) c) d)

anal phallic latency genital

Freuds Psychosexual Stages

Oral Stage
The infant's first source of pleasure is oral, deriving from the mouth. The fundamental requirements are food, security and warmth, so that development can proceed without hindrance. Bonding must occur at this stage or the capacity to form emotional bonds, as an adult, will be severely impaired.

Anal Stage
Tension builds up as bowel and bladder functioning demand attention. includes the child's first experiences with external regulation of an instinctual impulse, involving the postponement of the pleasure from relieving anal tensions child learns to differentiate between the 'ME versus NOT-ME child begins to realize that it is a pleasurable experience to manipulate particular areas of the body, such as the mouth, the anus and the genitals.

Freuds Psychosexual Stages

Phallic Stage
Oedipus Complex
With a male infant the objective choice is the loved mother, with jealousy of the father

Elektra complex
The girl develops a love for the father and corresponding jealousy of the mother

It is in the Phallic Stage that the sexuality of early childhood reaches its greatest intensity and that male and female sexuality becomes differentiated. With careful handling by the parents, these stages are worked through leaving no ill effects.

Freuds Psychosexual Stages

Latency period
a child's sexual impulses are repressed The child then realizes that his/her wishes and longings cannot be fulfilled and will turn away from his/her original desires. Hence, he/she starts the identification with the parent of the same sex and this will lead to rapidly evolving sex roles. the drives are decreased and the libido is transferred from parents to friends, clubs and leading figures. The Superego is already present, but becomes more organized and principled. Culturally valued skills and values are acquired and feelings of shame, guilt and disgust arise. The child has evolved from an animal-like creature with primitive drives to a reasonable human being with complex feelings. The child learns to adapt to reality and also begins the process of what Freud terms "infantile amnesia," the repression of the earliest traumatic, overly sexual or painful memories.

Freuds Psychosexual Stages

The Genital Stage The child's energy once again focuses on his genitals. Puberty reactivates the early genital impulses and the person passes into the mature Genital Stage.

101. According to this prominent psychologist, the person will always be exposed to two negating some situations which have to be resolved. He also coined the term identify crisis

a) b) c) d)

Freud Piaget Bandura Erikson

Erik Erikson
IDENTITY IS CENTRAL TO ERIKSON'S THINKING
lived such a crisis in his own life At a young age found out his father was really his stepfather Went to art school against his stepfather's wish before entering psychiatry Early in life, a negative identity may emerge from having been shamed, punished, made to feel guilty.

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ASPECTS OF STAGE CRISIS

In a healthy solution to a stage crisis, the positive resolution dominates. Some contact with the negative aspect is important in development

TROUBLE AT ONE STAGE NEED NOT RUIN EVERYTHING

Erik Erikson
"EIGHT AGES 1. BASIC TRUST VS. BASIC MISTRUST. (0-2) 2. AUTONOMY VS. SHAME AND DOUBT. (2-3) 3. INITIATIVE VS. GUILT. (4-5) 4. INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY (6-12) 5. IDENTITY VS. IDENTITY CONFUSION. (12-18) 6. INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION (19-25) 7. GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION. (26-40) 8. EGO INTEGRITY VS. DESPAIR (41-)

102. Emmanuel, a grade 1 pupil plays with his classmates but cannot accept defeat. According to Piagets theory of Cognitive Development, this particular behavior is typical for a child who is undergoing which stage of development?

a) b) c) d)

Concrete operational Formal operation Sensorimotor Pre-operation

Piagets Theory of Cognitive Development

sensorimotor stage
describes how an infant can experience and react to the world, but they do not analyse or reflect upon it and lack self-consciousness.

preoperational stage
children think of the world in magical terms, meaning they do not take into consideration the laws of nature. Anthropomorphic thinking
giving something which is not a human, human characteristics.

Egocentrism
the belief that the world revolves around you.

concrete operations stage

the child cannot deal with abstractions.

formal operations stage

adolescents are able to see the world for how it really is.

103. Teacher A equally divided the apple juice in two glasses for her two pupils. One glass is short but stout another long but thin. Both pupils wanted the long but thin glass believing that it contained more. What problem was demonstrated?

a) b) c) d)

Limited Social Cognition Lack of conservation Rigidity of thought Semi-logical reasoning

Conservation
The realization that objects or sets of objects stay the same even when they are changed about or made to look different. Achieves conservation of number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9)

104. Research on Piagetian tasks indicates that thinking becomes more logical and abstract as children reach the formal operations stage. What is an educational implication of this finding?

a) Learners who are not capable of logical reasoning from ages 8 to 11 lag behind in their cognitive development. b) Engage children in analogical reasoning as early as preschool to train them for higher order thinking skills (HOTS). c) Expect hypothetical reasoning for learners between 12 to 15 years of age. d) Let children be children.

Formal Operational Thinking

a person's ability and experiences with the use of logical operations can deal with complex verbal propositional reasoning that is not tied to a personal past or present experience.
includes reasoning about hypothetical problems reasoning that is not tied to a personal past or present experience. As well as reason about the future without tying it to a personal past or present experience.

Formal Operational Thinking

Can use theories, models, and hypotheses to create solutions to problems Is able to think about his or her own thoughts and feelings (metacognition) as if they were objects Reasoning can be independent of content. Can argue on the logic of an argument (solution or problem) independent of its content. Complex problems can be dealt with simultaneously and systematically by coordinating multiple thinking and reasoning strategies and or variables to derive solutions. Can use inductive reasoning by combining similar solutions to create generalizations, principles, models, and theories.

Formal Operational Thinking

Have a highly developed understanding of causation. Can use deductive reasoning Combinatorial reasoning is thinking that systematically considers all possible relations of experimental or theoretical conditions, even though some may not be realistic. Identify and control all variables when attempting to validate a relationship or inference. Proportional reasoning Probabilistic reasoning Can ues correlational reasoning to recognize a comparison between the number of confirming and disconfirming cases of a hypothesized relationship to the total number of cases.

105. Vygotsky claimed that social interaction is important for learning. What does this imply?

a) Since they are not capable of interaction, children in the crib have no learning yet. b) Children learn well by passive presentation of information. c) Children learn from adults and other children. d) Children are independent problem solvers.

Vygotskys Social Development Theory

one of the foundations of constructivism Major themes:
Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)
anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner teacher, coach, or older adult, could also be peers, a younger person, or even computers

The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

the distance between a students ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and the students ability solving the problem independently. learning occurs in this zone

Applications of the Vygotskys Social Development Theory

promotes learning contexts in which students play an active role in learning a teacher should collaborate with his or her students in order to help facilitate meaning construction in students Learning becomes a reciprocal experience for the students and teacher

to behave in class. He said, When I ask a question, I want you to raise your right hand, and Ill call on you. Can you all raise your right hands, as I am doing? Twenty hands went up. All were left hands. Teacher Z is perplexed when he asks his students to follow his example by raising their right hands; instead, they raise their left hands. According to developmental theory, why did this happen?

a) Kohlberg would say students at the conventional level of moral development cooperate with peers. If one student raises his or her left hand, the others follow. b) Vygotsky would say the students are outside their zone of proximal development. They cannot complete the task without assistance. c) Piaget would say that students are egocentric, thus unable to consider another persons point of view. d) Erikson would say that the students lack the motor skills necessary to complete the task.

Egocentrism
inability to take another person's perspective inability to separate one's own perspective from those of others Preoperational children believe that everyone sees what they see, hears what they hear, and knows what they know. For example, a child might cover her eyes and say, "You can't see me!

107. Mr. Ocenar prepared the materials for his laboratory class in chemistry. He instructed the team leader in every group to start along the members of the group. Mr Ocenar allows his students to construct their own knowledge through direct experience and enable them to create schema. What theory is displayed in the given situation?

a) Lev Vygotskys Social Constructivism b) Jean Piagets Cognitive Constructivism c) Albert Banduras Social Learning Theory d) Urie Brofenbrenners Ecological Systems Theory

Comparison of Social Constructivism & Cognitive Development Theory

Comparison of Social Constructivism & Cognitive Development Theory

Similarities Both theories are based on the premise that cognition is the result of "mental construction". They both believe that learning is affected by the context in which an idea is taught as well as by students' beliefs and attitudes. Also, both of them believe that the boundaries of cognitive growth were established by societal influences.

Comparison of Social Constructivism & Cognitive Development Theory

Differences Piaget's theory is most concerned with the mechanisms of intellectual development and the acquisition of knowledge. Vygotsky's main contribution was to our understanding of the way in which culture influences development, through language and the social and material structure of society.

Comparison of Social Constructivism & Cognitive Development Theory

Vygotsky's theory differs from that of Piaget in a number of important ways: 1: Vygotsky places more emphasis on culture affecting/shaping cognitive development - this contradicts Piaget's view of universal stages and content of development. (Vygotsky does not refer to stages in the way that Piaget does). 2: Vygotsky places considerably more emphasis on social factors contributing to cognitive development (Piaget is criticized for underestimating this). 3: Vygotsky places more (and different) emphasis on the role of language in cognitive development (again Piaget is criticized for lack of emphasis on this).

Banduras Social Learning Theory

people can learn new information and behaviors by watching other people known as observational learning (or modeling) Basic Social Learning Concepts 1. People can learn through observation. 2. Mental states are important to learning. 3. Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behavior.

Bronfenbrenners Ecological Systems Theory

holds that development reflects the influence of several environmental systems five environmental systems:
Micro system: setting in which the individual lives Mesosystem: relations between microsystems or connections between contexts.

Bronfenbrenners Ecological Systems Theory

Exosystem: links between a social setting in which the individual does not have an active role and the individual's immediate context Macrosystem: the culture in which individuals live. Chronosystem: The patterning of environmental events and transitions over the life course, as well as sociohistorical circumstances.

108. Ferdie has a high level of self-awareness. He always spends time reflecting about his strengths and weaknesses and is able to use strategies to further improve himself. According to MI, his strength lies in his_______________.

a) b) c) d)

Emotional intelligence Intrapersonal intelligence Interpersonal intelligence Existential intelligence

Intrapersonal Intelligence
has accurate knowledge of ones dreams, goals, strengths, limitations, moods, anxieties, desires, and motivations Has the ability to act on the basis of selfknowledge, creating environments, guiding behavior, and making decisions based on an accurate picture of oneself makes decisions based on what is right for himself/ herself possesses a strong sense of identity and purpose

Eight criteria or 'signs' of an intelligence

Potential isolation by brain damage. The existence of idiots savants, prodigies and other exceptional individuals. An identifiable core operation or set of operations. A distinctive development history, along with a definable set of 'end-state' performances.

Eight criteria or 'signs' of an intelligence

An evolutionary history and evolutionary plausibility. Support from experimental psychological tasks. Support from psychometric findings. Susceptibility to encoding in a symbol system. (Howard Gardner 1983: 62-69)

109. You have pupils in your class whose achievement is below the grade level they are in. What should you do?

a) Give them the same work as other pupils so that they wont feel embarrassed. b) Give them materials on their level and let them work at a pace that is reasonable for them. c) Give the work that is a little above their achievement level to challenge them. d) Give them the same work as the other pupils, anyway they will learn as much as they are capable of learning.

Brain Research
No two children are alike. No two children learn in the identical way. An enriched environment for one student is not necessarily enriched for another. In the classroom we should teach children to think for themselves.

Four Ways to Differentiate Instruction

1. Differentiating the Content/Topic 2. Differentiating the Process/Activities 3. Differentiating the Product : varying the complexity to demonstrate mastery of the concepts 4. Manipulating The Environment or Through Accommodating Individual Learning Styles

110. Considering socio-cultural influences, who can serve as an effective model for students motivation? One who is ________.

a) popular and loving b) not like them in terms of race, sociocultural influences status and cultural background c) superior to them in age and position in life d) similar to them in terms of race, socioeconomic status and cultural background

Motivating Students
Make it real
learning activities based on topics that are relevant to your students' lives Strategies: using local examples, teaching with events in the news, using pop culture technology (iPods, cell phones, YouTube videos) to teach, or connecting the subject with your students' culture, outside interests or social lives

Provide choices
sense of autonomy in the learning process

Motivating Students
Balance the challenge
too easy: boredom and message of low expectations too difficult : undermine self-efficacy and create anxiety Scaffolding

Seek role models

If students can identify with role models they may be more likely to see the relevance in the subject matter due to differences in gender, age and social circles, sources of role models can be invited guest speakers, fellow students or other peers.

Motivating students
Use peer models
Students can learn by watching a peer succeed at a task someone whom the student identities with

Establish a sense of belonging

higher degree of intrinsic motivation and academic confidence fostered by an instructor that demonstrates warmth and openness, encourages student participation, is enthusiastic, friendly and helpful, and is organized and prepared for class.

Adopt a supportive style

behaviors include listening, giving hints and encouragement, being responsive to student questions and showing empathy for students.

Modeling
The process of learning by watching and repeating a behavior. This explains the learning of complex behavior in one or a few trials. This process implies cognition since we must remember what we saw and then repeat it.

Four Conditions for Effective Modeling to Occur

Attention Retention Motor Reproduction Motivation

Types of Models
Live Symbolic
image of a real person (TV,movies) character (Superman, Harry Potter)

Verbal Written instructions or

descriptions of how to act

Characteristics of Effective Models

Competence Prestige and Power Gender-Appropriate behavior Relevance Identification with the Model Observer

111. The teacher who nurtures the students positive psychosocial nature is likely to__________.

a) Trace all students background and coordinate with the guidance center in case the students have problems b) Be in class and listen to reasons of justification when students get into conflict. c) Provide some practical learning activities that will develop or foster harmonious relationships in classroom d) Remind the students to develop a peaceful classroom atmosphere so that everyone will be safe and happy

Positive psychology
encourages individuals to strive to do the best Positive emotions enable individuals to learn and work to the best of their ability Positive emotions are contagious so having a teacher or student who is positive can help the other students to be positive and work to the best of their abilities

Nondirective Teaching
emphasis on harmonious relationships based on respect, congruence, and empathy in promoting healthy psychological development Teacher should have
Empathetic understanding Congruence: be authentic and genuine Unconditional positive regard or respect
To create an atmosphere of psychological safety not judging character or personality without danger of rejection or condemnation antidote to previous experiences in which parents, teachers, and other authority figures acted toward them as if they had no intrinsic value as a person

I Believe in you I trust you I know you can handle this You are listened to You are cared for You are very important to me.
Barbara Coloroso

Six Critical Life Messages

Psychosocial Environment
~POSITIVE~ Warmth Caring Supportive Friendly Pleasant Sweet Encouragement

~NEGATIVE~
Cold & uncaring Harsh Punitive Aloof Sarcastic Threatening

Students in Threatening Environments:

Fear making errors Hope they will not fail or be embarrassed Pray that if they do the teacher will not take reprisal against them

Fear has been used to motivate. But, for the most, achievement is suppressed; pleasure is nonexistent.
(Charles and Senter, Elementary Classroom Management, 2002 p.48)

The Research Results Suggest:

Classrooms Function best when:
Positive, Structured, Reflective Climate full of
Warmth Support Pleasant Circumstances Low Levels of Fear

112. Studies in the area of neurosciences disclosed that the human brain has limitless capacity. What does this imply?

a) Pupils can possibly reach a point where they have learned everything. b) Every child is a potential genius. c) Some pupils are admittedly not capable of learning. d) Every pupil has his own native ability and his learning is limited to this native ability.

 Research shows that you begin learning in the womb and go right on learning until the moment you pass on. Your brain has a capacity for learning that is virtually limitless, which makes every human a potential genius. ~ Michael J. Gelb ~

The human brain has adapted to:

Interact with a complex environment. Abstract patterns from the complexity in that environment. Modify itself so that it functions more effectively in that environment. Solve "real" problems it perceives in that environment. Attend to that which it finds personally relevant or interesting.

As we examine today's schools, we find:

Brains that require complexity being bombarded with simplified basics. Brains that require interaction with the environment to activate their innate processes receiving their "experience" second hand through the words (and perceptions) of a teacher. Brains that have adapted to solve complex problems relevant to self being denied the opportunity to identify those problems and forced to solve predefined problems with predefined answers.

Interactive teaching elements

Orchestrated immersion Relaxed alertness Active processing

113. Research says: People tend to attribute their successes to internal causes and their failures to external causes. Based on this finding, what should be taught to students for them to be genuinely motivated to succeed?

a) Tell them that the research finding when applied will make them genuinely motivated. b) Convince them that genuine motivation is the only factor that matters for a person to succeed. c) Make them realize that failure is a part of life. d) Make them realize that both success and failure are more a function of internal causes.

Attribution Theory
Important assumption: People will interpret their environment in such a way as to maintain a positive selfimage.
They will attribute their successes or failures to factors that will enable them to feel as good as possible about themselves. When learners succeed at an academic task, they are likely to want to attribute this success to their own efforts or abilities; but when they fail, they will want to attribute their failure to factors over which they have no control, such as bad teaching or bad luck.

The basic principle of attribution theory as it applies to motivation is that a person's own perceptions or attributions for success or failure determine the amount of effort the person will expend on that activity in the future.

Students will be most persistent at academic tasks under the following circumstances:
if they attribute their academic successes to either:
internal, unstable, factors over which they have control (e.g., effort) or internal, stable, factors over which they have little control but which may sometimes be disrupted by other factors (e.g., ability disrupted by occasional bad luck);

if they attribute their failures to internal, unstable factors over which they have control (e.g., effort).

114. Bruners theory on intellectual development moves from enactive to iconic and symbolic stages. Applying Bruners theory, how would you teach?

a) b) c) d)

Begin with the abstract. Be interactive in approach. Begin with the concrete. Do direct instruction.

Bruners Constructivist Theory

The instructor's task is to "translate information to be learned into a format appropriate to the learner's current state of understanding" and organize it in a spiral manner "so that the student continually builds upon what they have already learned.

Bruners constructivist theory can be applied to instruction, as Kearsley (1994b) surmises, by applying the following principles:

Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness). Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral organization). Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the information given).

115. The following terms are related to learning disabilities. Which of the following pairs is NOT correct?

a) b) c) d)

Dyslexia reading disability Discalcula disability in math Dysgraphia perceptual ability Aphasia loss of language

Learning Disabilities
classification including several disorders in which a person has difficulty learning in a typical manner, usually caused by an unknown factor or factors. affect the brains ability to receive and process information

Learning Disabilities
conditions that cause a discrepancy between potential and actual levels of academic performance as predicted by the person's intellectual abilities. involve impairments or difficulties in concentration or attention, language development, or visual and aural information processing

Dyslexia
type of reading disability a common disorder that means students see words and shapes differently than other students can make learning to read and write near impossible without intervention

Dysgraphia
difficulties with handwriting the inability to write legibly, produce letters consistently, and remember how to make letters, or keep the size of letters consistent many of these students may also be helped, usually by using a keyboard rather than pen and pencil for answers Teachers can also modify curricula so that students may give answers orally or in multiplechoice form.

Dyscalculia
a math disability can cause such difficulties as learning math concepts (such as quantity, place value, and time), difficulty memorizing math facts, difficulty organizing numbers, and understanding how problems are organized on the page People with Dyscalculia are often referred to as having poor "number sense

Aphasia
an acquired language disorder in which there is an impairment of any language modality may include difficulty in producing or comprehending spoken or written language In technical terms, aphasia suggests the total impairment of language ability, and dysphasia a degree of impairment less than total

Aphasia
Some people with aphasia have trouble using words and sentences (expressive aphasia). Some have problems understanding others (receptive aphasia). Others with aphasia struggle with both using words and understanding (global aphasia).

For more questions

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