Mobile Radio Propagation

Cellular Mobile Communications-
IV
Mobile Radio Propagation
Dr. Nasir D.
Gohar
Modeling a Radio Channel: Most difficult part
in Radio System Design
 Highly unpredictable as compared to fixed wire-
line media
 Transmission path and its parameters keeps
changing instantaneously
Changes in path profile
Obstructions
Environmental changes
 Typically done statistically based on field
measurements[System Specific]
Physical survey *1
Computer simulation using certain models and
terrain data *2
*1 Gives some real picture of the environment and data can be incorporated to new system design and predict its
performance
*2 Empirical Models and Terrain data may not be quite updated
T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 2

Propagation Models are tools used for
 Prediction of received signal strength at a certain distance from Tx
 Estimation of rapid fluctuations in Rx signal strength in a close spatial
proximity to a particular location
Large-Scale Propagation Models

 Estimation/Prediction of Rx Signal Strength* [Local Average]over larger
distances from Tx[x00-xx,000 m]
 Used for Coverage Area estimation
Small-Scale Propagation Models

 Prediction/Estimation of rapid fluctuations** of Rx Signal Strength over a
short distance [few wavelengths] and short time interval [few seconds]
 Also called Fading Models
* computed by averaging signal measurements taken at intervals of 5λ to 40λ [1-10 m]

** Rx signal strength may vary very rapidly (over a change of a fraction of wavelength] by as large as
30-40 db (3 to 4 orders of magnitude]

Three Basic Mechanisms Affecting
Radio Signal Propagation
 Reflection: Signal waves Impinging upon earth surface, buildings, and
walls [objects quite big in size as compared to wavelength λ] get
reflected
 Diffraction: Signal waves get diffracted/bent around the objects, having
sharp irregularities [edges], and obstructing its path between Tx and Rx
 Signal waves reach Rx behind the obstacle[a hill, a tall building, or some
other structures] under its shadow
 Depends on geometry of the object, amplitude, phase and polarization of the
signal wave at the point of diffraction.
 Scattering: is caused by very small obstacles [as compared to signal
wavelength λ] such as rough surface, foliage, lamp posts, street signs,
etc.
Large-Scale Propagation Models are used to
predict the receive signal power or the path loss caused by above
mechanisms.

Free Space Propagation Model
 Used only when there exists a Line-Of-Sight [LOS] between Tx and Rx
 Finds application in Satellite and LOS MW Radio Link Designing
 It provides Path Loss PL[dB] calculations between such TX-RX as under
PL [dB] = -10 Log [ λ 2 / (4 π d)2] …………….Eqn-4.6

where λ is signal wavelength and d is distance between
Tx and Rx.
ASSUMPTIONS:
1. Both Tx and Rx Antennas are Unity Gain Antennas
2. There is no Loss in Feeder Cable, Duplexer, and
HPA.
HOW WE GET AT THIS RESULT ?

Free Space Propagation Model[Cont’d]

 Far-Field or Fraun-hofer Region: The region beyond the fraun-
hofer distance df from Tx Antenna
df = 2 D2 / λ
where D is the largest linear dimension of Tx
Antenna and df >> D and df >> λ .
 EIRP and ERP ?
 Close-in Distance: The minimum distance >= df where onward
Free-Space Model gets applicable. Denoted by do.
This distance is used as a known received power
reference point.
Pr(d) = Pr(do) (do / d)2 …………………….. df <= do. <= d

Free Space Propagation Model[Cont’d]

EXAMPLE-4.1: Find the far field distance of an antenna with
Max. physical linear dimension of 1 m and operating frequency
900 MHz.
Let us do it together
EXAMPLE-4.2: A Radio Tx is rated for a Max output of 50

Watts. Express Pt in [a] dBm [b] dBW. [c] If this Tx is used in a
system which employs a unity gain Tx antenna and 900 MHz
carrier frequency, calculate Pr in dBm at a free-space close-in
distance = 100 m. What would be Pr at 10 km from Tx. Assume
unity gain Rx antenna.
Who would like to do it?

Radiated Power and Electric Field Generated by
a Small Current Carrying Element
 Current carrying z
P
P
element produces E & M θr
θ d
fields L y
 E & M fields launched x
an antenna element
Fig-1
(as shown in Fig-1) are
given in Equation 1-3*.
 Three field components:
1. Radiation field component
2. Induction field component
3. Electrostatic field component
* Derivation of these equations is given in H/O # 12.

 Radiated Power and Electric Fig-2 [a] Power Flux Density [ L << λ ]
Field Generated by a Small
Current Carrying Element
[Cont’d]
Pd = EIRP/ 4π d2 = PtGt/ 4π d2
= E2 / Rfs = E2/ η W / m2
= |E|2 / 120π W / m2 ………. 4
Pr (d) = Pd Ae = |E|2 Ae / 120π
= PtGtGrλ 2/ (4π d)2 W…5
Fig-2 [b] Electrical Model of Voltage Applied at Rx Input

Pr (d) = V2 / Rant = (Vant )2 / 4Rant
……….6
Radiated Power and Electric Field Generated by
a Small Current Carrying Element [Cont’d]
Example-4.3: Assume a Rx is working at 10 km LOS distance from
an Isotropic Tx of 50W [Assume L = 1, and Gt = 1]. Rx has a gain Gr
defined equal to 2. Find [a] Power received at Rx [b] Magnitude of E
field induced at Rx antenna, and [c] Open circuit voltage induced at
Rx input assuming that Rx antenna has a pure real Impedance of 50
ohm and is matched with that of Rx.
Let us Try.

Three Basic Propagation Mechanisms
 Reflection
Radio wave travelling from one medium to another, having
different electric characteristics, gets partially reflected and
partially transmitted into the second medium.
Perfect Dielectric Material:
 No energy absorption
 ETotal = EReflected + ERefracted
Perfect Conductor Material
 No energy absorption
 ETotal = EReflected
Fresnel Reflection Coefficient Γ
 Relates incident wave energy with reflected wave energy
 Depends on material properties, wave polarization and
frequency and incidence angle

 Reflection
Fresnel Reflection Coefficient
Intrinsic Impedance η
η = (µ/ε)1/2
Velocity of EM wave = 1/ (µε)1/2
θi = θr
 Er = Γ E i
Et = (1 + Γ) Ei
 Three Basic Propagation
Mechanisms
 Reflection
Brewster Angle
An angle at which no
reflection occurs in the
medium of origin.
Occurs when incidence
angle θB is such that
Γ becomes zero.
Sin θB = (ε1 / ε1 + ε2 )1/2
Sin θB = (εr -1 / (εr)2 -1)1/2
Magnitude of reflection coefficients as a function of angle of

incidence for εr = 4, εr = 12
 Reflection
Perfect Conductor
 All Wave Energy is reflected [Maxwell’s Boundary Conditions]
 θi = θr
 E field in plane of incidence [Vertical Polarization], Γii = 1, thus,
Er = Ei
 E field normal to the plane of incidence [Horizontal Polarization],
Γ1 = -1, thus, Er = -Ei

 Reflection
Ground Reflection (2-Ray) Model
 Direct Path Signal and Ground-Reflected Path Signal [Fig-1] are
considered
 Provides a reasonably accurate prediction of large-scale signal
strength [over several km distance]*
 Also, used for LOS MW Radio Link Designing**
Tx
Fig-1: Two Ray Model
E LOS
Rx
ht
EI ER=EG
hr
* Mobile Radio Systems using tall towers[50m]

** 3rd ray reflected from ionosphere layer is also used
 Ground Reflection (2-Ray) Model[Cont’d]
 EToT = ELOS + Eg
 At Close-in distance, E(do, t) = Eo do Cos (ω c t)
 At distance d, E(d, t) = Eo do/ d Cos ω c (t - d/c) …[1] (d >> do)
 |EToT | = |ELOS + Eg|
Fig-2: Method of Images used to find path difference of ELOS and Eg

 Ground Reflection (2-Ray) Model[Cont’d]
 It can be shown [as derived in class, H/O # 13] that
EToT (d) = 2 Eo do / d [2π ht hr/ λ d ]
We know that Pr (d) = | EToT (d)|2 . Ae/ 377 Watts
EXAMPLE-4.6: A mobile station with λ/4 antenna length and

gain of 2.55 dB[1.8] is located at a distance of 5 km from Base
Station. The electric field strength measured at 1 km distance
from the Base Station is 1 mV/m. The carrier frequency used is
900 MHz.
[a] Find the length of the Mobile antenna.
[b] If Base Station is using an antenna tower of height 50 m
from ground level, and Mobile antenna is at 1.5 m
above the ground level, find the received power at the
Mobile antenna, using 2-Ray Model

 Diffraction
 A Mechanism that helps wave propagation
around curved surface of earth,
beyond the horizon and
behind obstacles (shadow zones).
 Huygen’s Principle states
all the points (obstructions) on a wave-front become point sources for
production of secondary wavelets which combine(vector sum) to
form a new wave-front (in the direction of propagation), and this new
wave-front is called diffracted wave-front
Fig-1: A typical Urban Environment Showing Multi-path and Shadowing

Fig-2: [a] Anther Exhibition of Shadowing Effect [b] Marine Environment Showing Shadowing and Multi-path
[a]
[b]

 Fresnel Zone
In multi-path environment, obstacles on the path of radio waves cause diffraction.
Fresnel, the inventor of fresnel model, postulated that the x-section of optical wave-
front(electro-magnetic wave-front) is divided into zones of concentric circles,
separated by λ/2. The radius of nth fresnel zone is given by
Rn = [n λ d1 d2 / d1 + d2 ]1/2 ………………………………………..[1]

 Effect of Fresnel Zone
Equation-1 implies two things:
 For a given Tx antenna height, higher the transmission frequency, more
the distance a radio signal will cover before the first fresnel zone touches
the ground
 For a given Tx frequency, higher the Tx antenna, more the distance a

radio signal will cover before the first fresnel zone touches the ground
Fig-4: [a] Effect of Frequency on Fresnel Zones [b] Effect of Tx Antenna Height

Fresnel Zone Geometry Fig-5: Knife-Edge Diffraction Geometry
Tx and Rx separated by an

obstruction of infinite width
Excess path length, ∆, can
be obtained from Fig-5[b]
∆ ≈ h2 (d1 + d2)/ 2d1 d2……….2
The corresponding phase

difference is given as
θ ∆ = 2 π ∆ / λ = π h2 (d1+d2)/
λd1d2
α ≈ h (d1 + d2)/ d1 d2
θ ∆ = π v2 / 2 where
v = h[2(d1+d2)/ λd1d2]1/2
v is known as Fresnel-Kirchoff
Diffraction parameter.

 Knife-Edge Diffraction Model
Fig-6: Knife-Edge Diffraction Geometry
Theoretical estimation
modified by necessary
empirical correction
Difficult to predict accurately
for actual complex & irregular
terrain
Mathematical expressions for
simple cases have been
derived.
Knife-Edge Model represents
the simplest case, one
obstruction.
Ed = Eo F(v) ………………..2

Gd (dB) = 20 log | F(v) |……3

 Knife-Edge Diffraction Model
Fig-7: Knife-Edge Diffraction Gain as a Function of v

 Knife-Edge Diffraction Model Fig-4.12: Fresnel Zones for Different knife-edge Diff. Scenarios
EXAMPLE-01:
Calculate the Diffraction Loss for
three cases as shown in Fig-4.12.
Assume λ = .33 m, d1 = d2 = 1 km
and [a] h = 25 m [b] h = 0 m and
[c] h = -25 m

 Knife-Edge Diffraction Model Fig-9: Knife-edge Geometry for Example-02
EXAMPLE-02:
Calculate the Diffraction Loss for
the Knife-Edge Scenario as shown
Fig-9. Also, calculate the height
of obstacle to get 6 dB Diff. Loss.
Assume f = 900 MHz.

 OUTDOOR PROPAGATION MODELS
 Many Models, Longley-Rice Model, Durkin Model, Okummura,
Hata, etc., mostly based on systematic interpretation of
measurement data in the area concerned
 Aim is to predict signal strength at a particular point or in a
certain locality
 Differ in their approach, complexity, and accuracy.
 Classical and most commonly used models:
Okumura Model
Hata Model
Walfisch and Bertoni Model

 Okumura Model
Simplest and best in terms of accuracy [mature and land mobile
radio systems]
Mostly used for urban and suburban area
Applicable for frequencies 150 MHz - 1920 MHz [Can be
extrapolated up to 3 GHz
Range covered is 1 km to 100 km
Applicable antenna heights range from 30 m to 1000 m.
A purely statistical model that does not provide any analytical
explanation
Not suitable for rural areas

 OUTDOOR PROPAGATION
MODELS
 Okumura Model
Provides a set of curves [Fig-1]
based on extensive
measurements
 Application of this model
Calculate free space loss Lf
Add to this, A (f, d) found from
these curves
Some corrections are applied for
terrain type[Fig-2, Next Slide]
Fig-1 Median attenuation relative to free space

(amu(f,d)), over a quasi-smooth terrain
 OUTDOOR PROPAGATION
MODELS
 Okumura Model
EXAMPLE-01: Using Okumura’s

model, find median attenuation for
d = 50 km, Tx antenna = 100 m
and Rx antenna = 10 m in a
suburban area. If Tx EIRP is 1 kW
at 900 MHz, find the signal receive
level at mobile station ( assume its
antenna gain = 0 dB].
Solution: 1. Calculate LF
2. Calculate L50
3. Pr = EIRP - L50 + Gr
Fig-2 Okumura Model Correction Curves

 Hata Model
 Empirical formulation of Okumura Model graphical curves
 Valid for 150 - 1500 MHz frequency range
 Standard formula provides urban area propagation loss and corrections are
applied for other areas
 Tx antenna height range is limited to 30 to 200 m
 Rx antenna height is limited to 3 to 10 m
 Hata Model standard formula:

 Urban Area:
 Suburban Area:
 Rural Area:
 Mobile antenna correction factor:
 Small to medium size city:
 Large city:

Urban area:
L50 = 69.55 + 26.16 log fc 13.82 log hb a(hm) + (44.96.55 log hb) log R
where
fc frequency (MHz)
L50 mean path loss (dB)
Hb base station antenna height
a(hm) correction factor for mobile antenna height (dB)
R distance from base station (km)
 The range of the parameters for which Hata’s model is valid is
150 ≤ fc ≤ 1500 MHz
30 ≤ hb ≤ 200 m
1 ≤ hm ≤ 10 m
1 ≤ R ≤ 20 km

Urban area (cont.):
 For a small or mediumsized city:
a(hm)=(1.1 log fc 0.7) hm (1.56 log fc 0.8 ) dB
 For a large city:
a(hm)=8.29(log 1.54 hm)2 1.1 dB, fc ≤ 200 MHz
or
a(hm)=3.2(log 11.75 hm)2 4.97 dB, fc ≥ 400 MHz
 Suburban area: 2
 fc 
 
L50(
L50 = urban)

2
log  5.4 
+ dB
 
 28   
 Open Area:
L50 = L50(urban) 4.78 (log fc)2+18.33 (log fc) 40.94

 PCS Extension of Hata Model by EURO-COST-231
 Extended version of Hata Model suitable for PCS-1800 system
 Valid for 1500-2000 MHz frequency range
 Standard formula provides urban area propagation loss and a correction
factors are applied for mobile antenna[same as in Hata Model] and CM for city
type
 Tx antenna height range is limited to 30 to 200 m
 Rx antenna height is limited to 1 to 10 m
 Tx-Rx separation is limited to 1-20 km
 Hata-COST-231 Model standard formula:
CM :
Suburban and medium size city: 0 dB
Large city and Metropolitan center: 3 dB

 Walfisch and Bertoni Model
 Impact of rooftops and building height is studied
 IMT-R considers this Model as a candidate for IMT-2000 standard
activities
 This model considers free space loss plus roof-top to street diffraction
and scatter loss, and multi-screen diffraction loss due to rows of the
buildings [Fig-3]
Fig-3: Propagation Geometry for Walfisch and Bertoni Model

 INDOOR PROPAGATION MODELS
 Advent of PCS generated an impulse to study wave propagation
inside buildings.
Main differences between outdoor and indoor wave propagation
characteristics are;
 The distance covered are much smaller
 Within such a smaller range of Tx -Rx separation, a much larger
environmental variation is encountered
 Wave propagation is strongly influenced by
 Building layout
 Construction materials
 Building type
 Same three mechanisms: Reflection, Diffraction, and Scattering

are main reasons of signal propagation and attenuation
 Signal level varies very quickly depending upon:
Interior doors are open or closed
Antenna mounting

 Partition Losses: Partitions play an important role in signal
propagation within buildings.
Hard Partitions: Part of building structure and immoveable partitions
such as fixed internal walls, reinforced concrete between floors, etc
Soft Partitions: Moveable and not spanning to the ceiling, such as
office partitions
 Same Floor: A floor inside a building may have a combination of
partitions, hard as well as soft partitions
 Inter Floor: Mainly fixed partitions, concrete floors, external
dimensions and materials of the building
 Partitions Offer Wide Variety of Physical As Well As
Electrical Characteristics
Difficult to apply general models to indoor radio signal propagation
Some measurement data describes radio signal attenuation while
crossing various kinds of partitions or across a number of floors [See
Table-4.3, 4.4, and 4.5]

 Partition Losses


Table-4.4 and Table-4.5

 Log-Distance Path Loss Model
Many Researchers have shown that radio signal propagation
inside buildings obey distance power law given by
PL(dB) = PL (do) + 10 n log (d/do) + Xσ……………Eqn. 1

Where n depends on surroundings and building type, and Xσ
is a random variable depending on standard deviation σ [dB].
See Table-4.6 on next slide


 Ericsson Multiple Breakpoint Model
Empirical Model based on measurements in a multiple floor office
building
Provides an upper and lower bound on path loss
Assumes that at 1 meter distance(from Tx) there is 30 dB loss at 900
MHz.
Fig-1 Ericsson In-building Path Loss Model

Mobile Radio Propagation

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Cellular Mobile Communications-

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 2

Large-Scale Propagation Models

Small-Scale Propagation Models

* computed by averaging signal measurements taken at intervals of 5λ to 40λ [1-10 m]

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 3

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 4

PL [dB] = -10 Log [ λ 2 / (4 π d)2] …………….Eqn-4.6

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 5

Free Space Propagation Model[Cont’d]

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 6

Free Space Propagation Model[Cont’d]

EXAMPLE-4.2: A Radio Tx is rated for a Max output of 50

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 7

 E & M fields launched x

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 8

Pr (d) = Pd Ae = |E|2 Ae / 120π

= PtGtGrλ 2/ (4π d)2 W…5

Fig-2 [b] Electrical Model of Voltage Applied at Rx Input

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 10

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 11

Velocity of EM wave = 1/ (µε)1/2

Sin θB = (εr -1 / (εr)2 -1)1/2

Magnitude of reflection coefficients as a function of angle of

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 14

* Mobile Radio Systems using tall towers[50m]

Fig-2: Method of Images used to find path difference of ELOS and Eg

We know that Pr (d) = | EToT (d)|2 . Ae/ 377 Watts

EXAMPLE-4.6: A mobile station with λ/4 antenna length and

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 17

Fig-1: A typical Urban Environment Showing Multi-path and Shadowing

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 19

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 20

 For a given Tx frequency, higher the Tx antenna, more the distance a

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 21

Tx and Rx separated by an

The corresponding phase

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 22

Ed = Eo F(v) ………………..2

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 23

Fig-7: Knife-Edge Diffraction Gain as a Function of v

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 24

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 25

 Knife-Edge Diffraction Model Fig-9: Knife-edge Geometry for Example-02

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 26

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 27

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 28

Fig-1 Median attenuation relative to free space

EXAMPLE-01: Using Okumura’s

Fig-2 Okumura Model Correction Curves

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 30

 Hata Model standard formula:

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 31

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 32

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 33

 Hata-COST-231 Model standard formula:

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 34

Fig-3: Propagation Geometry for Walfisch and Bertoni Model

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 35

 Same three mechanisms: Reflection, Diffraction, and Scattering

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 36

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 37

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 38

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 39