Mechanics-1

Syllabus 2001
◆ Wk 1 Intro
➤ Chpt 1 Measurement
◆ Wk 2 Error Propagation
◆ Wk 3
➤ Chpt 2 - Motion in 1[D]
◆ Wk 4
➤ Chpt 4 - Motion in 2[D]
◆ Wk 5 QUIZ 1
➤ Chpt 5 Laws of Motion
◆ Wk 6
➤ Chpt 5, 6 - Circ. Motion & apps of Newtons Laws
■ Mid Semester Break
◆ Wk 7 ANZAC DAY
◆ Wk 8
➤ Chpt 7,8 - Work & Energy
◆ Wk 9 QUIZ 2
➤ 39.7 - Relativistic Energy
◆ Wk 10
➤ Chpt 9,10 - Momentum, Collisions, Rotation
◆ Wk 11
➤ Chpt 40(Brief), 41 - QM
➤ Chpt 42, 43(Brief) - Atomic to Solids
◆ Wk 12
➤ Chpt 44 - Nuclear & Radiation
◆ Wk 13 QUIZ 3 + Feedback + Exam Prep

Engineering Physics Partial Lecture Notes

 Mechanics-2

Projectile Motion
■ Maximum Height
◆ At the peak position vy = 0 = viy-gt1

vi sin θ
∴ t1 =
g
2
1 v sin θ 1  vi sin θ 
∴ H = viy t1 − gt12 = vi sin θ. i − g  
2 g 2  g 

1 vi2 sin 2 θ
H=
2 g

■ Projectile Range
◆ Range = distance in x-dir’n during time t2
➤ t2=2t1
2
v sin θ vi .2 sin θ cos θ
R = vix t 2 = vi cos θ.2 i =
g g

vi2 sin 2θ
R=
g

◆ Range is a max when sin2θ =1 ie. θ=45o

◆ Angles for the same range θ2=90o-θ1
Engineering Physics Partial Lecture Notes
 Mechanics-3

Motion in One Dimension

◆ Kinematics - description of motion.
◆ Consider particles initially - point-objects (no size).

■ Displacement, Velocity and Speed (2.1)

◆ Motion involves a change in position with time.
◆ Graphically, plot position (x in 1D) versus time (t):

t
◆ Particle moves from xi at time ti to xf at time tf.
◆ ∆x ≡ xf − xi is its displacement. SI unit: metre (m).
∆ t ≡ tf − ti is the time interval. SI unit: second (s).
∆x
◆ Average velocity v≡ SI unit: metre per
∆t second (m/s)

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 Mechanics-4

◆ Graphically [Fig. 2.3a], v is slope of chord of x versus t

graph.

NOTES:
1. Depends only on initial and final positions, not on actual
distance travelled between them.
2. Can be +ve (net movement in +ve x direction), −ve (in −ve
x direction), or zero.
total distance
3. Average speed = is always +ve.
total time

■ Instantaneous Velocity and Speed (2.2)

◆ As tf → ti (= t), or ∆t → 0, → instantaneous velocity v at
v
time t.
i.e. lim ∆ x dx
v≡ =
∆ t → 0 ∆ t dt

◆ Graphically [Fig. 2.3b], v is slope of tangent to curve at

time t.

NOTES:
1. Can be +ve, −ve or zero.
2. ‘Velocity’ alone means instantaneous.
3. Instantaneous speed = magnitude of instantaneous velocity

Engineering Physics Partial Lecture Notes

 Mechanics-5

dx
v=
dt
◆ Can be thought of as infinitesimal displacement dx divided
by corresponding infinitesimal time interval dt.
◆ Thus ∆ denotes any change in a quantity, and
d denotes infinitesimal change in a quantity.
◆ We often separate parts of derivatives and write (e.g.):
dx = v dt
(infinitesimal displacement = velocity × infinitesimal time
interval).

■ Acceleration (2.3)
◆ If velocity changes from vi at time ti to vf at tf, change in
velocity is ∆v ≡ vf − vi and

average acceleration ∆v
a≡ SI unit: metre per
∆t second squared (m/s2)

◆ Graphically, slope of chord of v vs t graph. [Fig. 2.5]

If ∆t → 0, obtain
lim ∆v dv
instantaneous acceleration a≡ =
∆t → 0 ∆t dt
NOTES:
1. Can be +ve, −ve or zero.
2. ‘Acceleration’ alone means instantaneous.
dv d  dx  d 2 x
3. a= =  =
dt dt  dt  dt 2

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 Mechanics-6

■ 1[D] Motion With Constant Acceleration (2.5)

∆v v f − vi
◆ a = a and a = =
∆t t f − ti
◆ If ti = 0 t f = t then:
v − vi
a= f ∴ v f = vi + at (2.8)
t
vi + v f  ∆x 
◆ Also, may write v = =  [Fig. 2.10a]
2  ∆t 
∴

◆ Since ∆x = xf − xi then: ∆x = 12 ( vi + v f ) ∆t

x f − xi = 12 ( vi + v f ) t
(2.10)

◆ Substituting for vf from (2.8) into (2.10):

x f − xi = 12 ( vi + vi + at ) t

x f − xi = vi t + 12 at 2
i.e. (2.11)

◆ Substituting for t from (2.8) into (2.10):

 v f − vi 
x f − xi = ( vi + v f )
1
2 
 a 
v 2f − vi2
=
2a
Engineering Physics Partial Lecture Notes
 Mechanics-7

∴ v 2f = vi2 + 2a( x f − xi ) (2.12)

■ Freely Falling Bodies (2.6)

◆ All objects fall with same constant downward acceleration
due to gravity, of magnitude g = 9.8 m/s2 (neglecting air
resistance).
◆ Replacing x by y, choosing +ve as up, setting a = −g get:

v f = vi − gt y f − yi = 12 ( vi + v f ) t

y f − yi = vi t − 12 gt 2 v 2f = vi2 − 2 g ( y f − yi )

Engineering Physics Partial Lecture Notes

 Mechanics-8

Forces & Motion

■ 1st Law of Motion
◆ “In the absence of a net force, an object
at rest remains at rest and a moving
object continues with a constant velocity”

■ Inertia
◆ is the resistance an object offers to a change
in it’s motion
◆ Mass - is a measure of the inertia of an object

■ 2nd Law of Motion F = ma F = ∑ forces

◆ acceleration is in same direction as the force

◆ Weight w=mg Force due to gravity

■ 3rd Law of Motion FAB = − FBA

◆ “When an object exerts a force on
another object, the second object exerts
an equal force on the first but in the
opposite direction”

Engineering Physics Partial Lecture Notes

 Mechanics-9

■ Tension Tension in
◆ Tension is a force ! string

m
■ Force Fg
◆ Units are Newton’s (N)
◆ 1N=force which gives a 1kg mass an
acceleration of 1ms-2

■ Friction
◆ Frictional forces impede motion

Starting friction
Ffriction

Sliding friction
Static friction

Fapplied

■ Coefficient of Friction, µ
◆ Friction depends on what kinds of surfaces
make contact & the perpendicular force with
which either surface is pressed against the
other, the Normal Force, FN

F f = µFN
Engineering Physics Partial Lecture Notes
 Mechanics-10

Example
■ Coefficient of Friction
◆ Wood on wood
➤ coeff. of static friction µS = 0.5
➤ coeff. of sliding friction µ = 0.3

◆ Q: What is the minimum force required to

start a 100kg wardrobe moving on a wooden
floor?
F f = µ S FN = µ S mg = 0.5 × 100 × 9.8 = 490 N

➤ nb: box only moves when force is > 49N

◆ Q: What force is required to keep the

wardrobe moving at constant speed?
F f = µFN = µmg = 0.3 × 100 × 9.8 = 294 N

➤ What happens if the force is > 294N?

◆ Q: If we maintain a force of 49N the box will

accelerate. What would the acceleration be?

F = Fapplied − F f = (490 − 294) N = 196 N

196 N
F = ma ∴ a = = 1.96ms − 2
100kg

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 Mechanics-11

Examples
■ Newton’s 2nd Law
m
a=g Fg=mg

■ Newton’s 3rd Law

Tension in
Can you see another string
pair of equal & opposite
forces?
m
Fg

■ Static situation B
T
m2

F1=m1g
T

A m1
F1=m1g

◆ Q: What happens if there is no friction with the

tabletop?

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 Mechanics-12

Example
■ Static situation

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 Mechanics-13

Starting friction
Ffriction

Sliding friction
Static friction

Fapplied

Tension in B
string T
m2
m
F1=m1g
F
T
g

A m1
F1=m1g

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 Mechanics-14

Circular Motion
■ Uniform Circular Motion
◆ object moving in a circle at constant speed
◆ velocity changes due to direction changes
◆ hence acceleration (centripetal acceleration)

Fc
2
v Fc
mva2c = v
Fc = mac = r
r

■ Period of orbit
◆ How long does it take for an object to
complete one orbit?
◆ Let period = T, the distance travelled is equal
to the circumference of the circle, so the
period can be described in terms of v and r.

s = 2π r
s 2π r
v= =
t T
2π r
∴T =
v

Engineering Physics Partial Lecture Notes

 Mechanics-15

Circular Motion (cont.)

■ Non-Uniform Circular Motion
◆ object moving in a circle at varying speed
◆ hence has both centripetal acceleration and a
non-zero tangential component of acceleration
◆ examples include pendulums and vertical
circular paths (non- constant velocity)
v

Fc
Fc v

Fw = mg

■ Example Fw = mg
◆ A yo-yo of mass m is attached to the end of a
cord of length R and swung in a vertical circle.
i.e. velocity is non-uniform because there is a
tangential component of acceleration due to
the weight of the yo-yo.
Limiting cases

v 2 
Ttop = m − g 
Engineering Physics Partial Lecture Notes R


 ∑F t =
2 at = g
 Mechanics-16

Example

◆ A car rounds a curve of radius 50m at constant

velocity. If the friction between the car and the
road is 0.5, how fast can the car travel?
➤ The centripetal force that keeps the car on the
road and in a circular path is static friction Fs
➤ The maximum speed is when the car is almost
skidding.

Fs max
What happens when the car goes faster than this speed?
What if the car is travelling slower than this speed? ∴v =
=16m

Engineering Physics Partial Lecture Notes

 Mechanics-17

Example
■ Effect of Banking
◆ What if the curve was banked to 200? How fast
could the car travel now (not including
friction)?

n
➤ Sum of forces in x direction ncosϑ

n
nsinϑ
➤ Sum of forces in the y direction
∑F x mg θ =
= n sin

ϑ ➤ solving for v ∑F y
= n cos θ =
mg

n sin
What happens when the car goes faster than this speed? n cos
What if the car is travelling slower than this speed?
v=
=13m
What if friction is included? How fast can the car travel now?
How do racing cars use centripetal acceleration to their advantage?

Engineering Physics Partial Lecture Notes

 Mechanics-18

Gravitation
■ Newtons law of gravitation Fr
◆ between two masses
m2

m1
◆ G is the universal constant of gravitation
m1m2
➤ 6.67 x 10 Nm kg
-11 2 -2 F g = G
r2
➤ direction of F is along line between the two
centres of mass

■ Example
◆ If a person weighs 800N on Earth, how high
do they have to be to weigh only 200N?
m1mE
F2 = G
R2
F1 m1mF 2
RG mR1m 2
E 1 =
E
= × = 2
F2 rE
2
m1mE rrEE2
R 2 800
∴ 2 =
rE 200
∴ R = 2rE

What would they weigh if they were at the centre of the Earth?

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 Mechanics-19

Satellites
■ Example
◆ What velocity is required to keep a satellite in
orbit?
➤ The weight of the satellite is balanced by the
centripetal force.
Alternative derivation
from previous slide

mv 2 mM
Fr = 2).
➤ Note that GME/R2 is equal to g (9.8m/s =G v 1=2
r r
➤ Hence, GME=gR2.
GM E GM
v= =
◆ What distance above the earths surface would r R
a geostationary satellite be?
➤ A geostationary orbit is above a fixed point on
the Earths surface (spy, weather and
communications satellites). Therefore, the
period of rotation is 24hours.

2π r 2π r  2π  3 / 2
T= = = r
v GM E  GM 
 E 
r
2/3 Using the second formula
T 
r= GM E 
 2π 

Engineering Physics Partial Lecture Notes

T
r =
 Mechanics-20

Terminal Velocity
■ An object moving through a medium will
experience a resistive force R which
depends on the speed of the object, the
shape of the object and the density of
the medium.

1
R= DρAv 2
2
◆ Where ρ is the density of air, A is the cross-
sectional area of the falling object measured in
a plane perpendicular to its motion and D is a
dimensionless empirical quantity called the
drag coefficient (0.5 for spheres but up to 2
for odd shapes).

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 Mechanics-21

Example
■ Terminal Velocity
◆ A skydiver jumps out of a plane. What is the
acceleration she reaches? What is the terminal
speed at this point?
R=Fdrag
➤ Terminal speed is when the net force on the
skydiver is zero (when R = -mg).

Fg=mg

Fnet = m

a =g −

Dρ
g−
2m
2
vt =
D
Engineering Physics Partial Lecture Notes
 Mechanics-22

Chapter 7: Work
■ Work, in the physical sense, is how
effective a force is at moving an object.
■ Work can be defined as the product of
the component of a force in the
direction of an objects displacement and
the magnitude of the displacement.
◆ Units of newton.meter (N.m) or joule (J)
F
Fsinϑ
n
ϑ Fcosϑ

W = Fd cos ϑ d
mg
W = F •d
■ Work is positive when the applied force
is in the same direction as the
movement.
■ Work is negative when the applied force
is in the opposite direction to the
movement.
◆ Incorporated into cosϑ
■ Work can also be considered as an
energy transfer. If energy is transferred
to the system W is positive; if energy is
What is
transferred the work
from thedone to lift a book?
system W is
What is the work done on the book by gravity?
negative.
Engineering Physics Partial Lecture Notes
 Mechanics-23

Work done by a Spring

■ The work done by a varying or non-
constant force is equivalent to the
integral of the force over the range of
the displacement.

∆W = Fx ∆x
xf

W ≈∑
■ A spring is a common physical Fx ∆x
system in
x
which the force varies with position. It
i

x f

lim ∑
x
can be described by Hookes’ Law.Fx ∆x = ∫ Fx dx
f

∆x →0 xi
◆ The force required to stretch or compress
xi
a
x
spring depends is proportional
∴Wto =the amount
∫
f
Fx dx
xi
of stretch or compression (x) with the
proportionality constant k known as the spring
constant. Fs =−kx

◆ What is the work done on a spring to move it

from an initial distance xi to a final distance xf?

Engineering Physics Partial Lecture Notes W = ∫ Fs dx = ∫−

 Mechanics-24

Energy
■ Energy can be defined as the ability to
do work.

■ There are different forms of energy.

◆ Kinetic energy is due to the motion of an
object.

◆ Potential energy is due to the state, shape or

position of an object.

➤ Chemical energy results from the positions of

electrons about the nucleus. A chemical
reaction can convert this potential or stored
energy into kinetic energy.
➤ Thermal energy stored in molecules is emitted
as thermal radiation. The thermal energy is from
the vibrations of the molecule and can be
considered as the average kinetic energy of the
molecule.
➤ Electrostatic energy
◆ potential energy stored in an electric field by virtue
of the position of charged particles.
◆ kinetic energy of charged particles moving in space
or through a conductor
➤ Mass energy E = mc2
◆ latent energy stored in masses

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 Mechanics-25

Kinetic Energy
■ The energy possessed by a moving
object is its Kinetic Energy.

1
mv 2 K .E. =
■ The sum of the work done on an object2
can be described by the change in
kinetic energy of the object. Work-
Kinetic Energy theorem.

∑W = ∆KE
◆ If friction is included, the theorem is modified.

∆KE friction = − f k d

KEi + ∑W other − f k d

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 Mechanics-26

Power
■ Power is the rate at which work is done.
◆ Measured in watts: 1W = 1J/s = 1kgm2/s3

dW
P= =
■ Examples dt
◆ Two bullets, one twice the mass of the other,
are fired so that they have the same speed.
Which bullet has the greater kinetic energy?

◆ An older model car accelerates from 0m/s to

vm/s in 10s while a new car accelerates to
2vm/s in the same amount of time. What is
the ratio of power of the two vehicles?

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 Mechanics-27

Chapter 8: Potential Energy

■ Potential energy is energy an object
possesses due to it’s state, shape or
position.

■ Gravitational potential energy

◆ energy due to an objects position in a
gravitational field eg. height
In book
h = y and PE = U
PE g = mgh

■ Elastic potential energy

◆ energy due to a spring’s position

1 2
PEs = kx
2

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 Mechanics-28

Forces
■ A Force is called conservative if the work
done to move an object between two
points is independent of the path taken.
This can also occur if an object moves
through a closed path and returns to the
same initial point, whereupon the work
on the particle is zero.

■ A Force is called non-conservative if the

work done to move an object between
two points is dependent on the path
taken. For example friction is a non-
conservative force.
Friction on surface
B

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 Mechanics-29

Conservation of Energy
■ Energy is conserved if no external forces
do work on the system and if no non-
conservative forces act on the objects in
the system.

KEi + PEi = K
If friction acts on the objects in the system
then energy is not conserved.

■ Energy can never be created or

destroyed.
■ Energy may be transformed from one
from to another, but the total energy of
an isolated system is always constant.
■ The total energy in the universe is
constant

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 Mechanics-30

Examples: work
■ A tugboat exerts a constant force of
5000N on a ship moving through a
harbour. How much work does the
tugboat do if it moves the ship 3.00km?

■ A sledge loaded with bricks has a total

mass of 18.0kg and is pulled at constant
speed by a rope. The rope is inclined 200
to the horizontal and the sledge moves a
distance of 20.0m on a horizontal
surface. The coefficient of friction
between the ice and the sledge is 0.500.
◆ What is the tension of the rope?
◆ How much work is done on the sledge by the
rope?
◆ What is the energy lost due to friction?

■ When a 4.00kg mass is hung vertically

on a spring that obeys Hooke’s law, the
spring stretches 0.50cm. If the 4.00kg
mass is removed,
◆ How far would the string stretch if a 1.50kg
mass is hung on it?
◆ How much work must an external agent do to
stretch the same spring 4.00cm from it’s
equilibrium position?
Engineering Physics Partial Lecture Notes
 Mechanics-31

Examples: work
■ If it takes work W to stretch a Hooke’s
law spring a distance d from its
equilibrium position determine the extra
work required to stretch it an additional
distance d?

■ A crate of mass 10.0kg is pulled up a

rough surface with an initial speed of
1.50m/s. The pulling force is 100N
parallel to the incline, which makes an
angle of 200 to the horizontal. The
coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.400,
and the rate is pulled 5.00m.
◆ How much work is done by gravity?
◆ How much energy is lost due to friction?
◆ How much work is done by the 100N force?
◆ What is the change in kinetic energy of the
crate?
◆ What is the speed of the crate after it has
been pulled 5.00m?

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 Mechanics-32

Examples: energy
■ A 40.0N child s in a swing that is
attached to two ropes 2.00m long. Find
the gravitational potential energy of the
child-Earth system relative to the child’s
lowest position when
◆ the ropes are horizontal
◆ the ropes make a 300 angle with the vertical
◆ the child is at the bottom of the arc.

■ A bead slides without friction around a

loop-the-loop. If the bead is released
from a height 3.50R, what is the speed
at point A? How great is the normal
force on it if the mass is 5.0g?

h
R

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 Mechanics-33

Examples: energy
■ After its release at the top of the first
rise, a roller coaster car moves freely
with negligible friction. The roller
coaster has a circular loop of radius
20.0m. The car barely makes it around
the loop: at the top of the loop the riders
are upside down and feel weightless.
◆ Find the speed of the roller coaster at the top
of the loop.
◆ Find the speed of the roller coaster at the
bottom of the lop and halfway up the loop
◆ Find the difference in height between position
1 and 4 if the speed at position 4 is 10.0m/s.

3 4

2
R

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 Mechanics-34

Chapter 39: Relativity

■ Since it was known that sound waves
propagate through a medium, it was
assumed that light waves would have the
same limitation. The ether was proposed
as the medium of free Mirror
space. 1

Velocity of the ether

Mirror 2

Observer

■ This idea was tested in the Michelson

Morley experiment.
◆ No change in the interference patten was ever
observed.
■ Light is now known to be a form of
electromagnetic radiation, which needs no
medium for propagation.
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 Mechanics-35

Einstein’s Principle of Relativity

■ The speed of light is constant:
◆ The speed of light in a vacuum has the same
value (3.00x108m/s),regardless of the velocity
of the observer or the velocity of the source.

■ The principle of relativity:

◆ The laws of physics must be the same in all
inertial reference frames.

■ Consequences of special relativity

◆ Time dilation
➤ time interval measured by an observer moving
with respect to the clock is longer than the time
measured by an observer at rest with respect to
the clock.
◆ Can use example of laser on a spaceship or in a
train
◆ Length contraction
➤ Length of an object measured y someone in a
reference frame moving with respect to the
object is always less than the proper length of
an object (measured at rest relative to an
object).
◆ Simultaneity
➤ Events that are simultaneous for one observer
may not be simultaneous for another observer
who is motion relative to the first

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 Mechanics-36

Chapter 39.7: Relativistic Energy

■ Twin paradox
◆ Twin Speedo goes on a 20ly journey (at about
0.95c) while twin Goslo stays on Earth. When
Speedo returns he is 33 years old while Goslo
is 62 years old.
◆ Which twin is the traveller? From Speedo’s
frame of reference he stayed still while Goslo
moved but from Goslo’s frame of reference
Speedo was the traveller.
◆ Resolution: Speedo is in a non-inertial
reference frame (ie. speeds up and slows
down therefore no paradox.
■ The total energy of a particle is the sum of
the kinetic energy and the rest energy.

E 2 = p 2c 2 +
■ Special or General relativity:
◆ Special relativity deals with reference frames
moving at constant velocity to each other
◆ General relativity deals with accelerating
reference frames
➤ laws of nature are the same in any frame of
reference whether accelerated or not
➤ Principle of equivalence: inertial mass and
gravitational mass are equivalent. A
gravitational field is equivalent to an accelerated
Engineering Physics Partial Lecture Notes
frame of reference in the absence of
gravitational effects.
 Mechanics-37

Doppler Effect
■ The Doppler effect that has been discussed in
reference to sound waves can also be
considered when viewing light from a moving
source.
■ If a light source is moving with respect to an
observer the frequency will shift.
◆ If the source (eg, a star) is moving away from
the observer at a constant velocity the
frequency of light observed will shift towards
the red end of the spectrum (red-shift)
◆ If the source is moving towards the observer
then the frequency of light will be blue shifted
◆ Most sources (eg galaxies) are found to be
moving away. i.e. the universe is expanding

receding advancing

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 Mechanics-38

Chapter 9: Momentum
■ Momentum
◆ The linear momentum of an object is p = mv.
➤ Where p is momentum, m is mass and v is
velocity.
➤ p and v are vector quantities

◆ Momentum in an isolated system is always

conserved.
Law
➤ of conservation
Initial of momentum
momentum = final momentum

■ Impulse
◆ Impulse is the integral of a force applied over
time
➤ eg. kicking a football. F
◆ The impulse imparted to an object by a force F
is equal to the change in momentum of the
object.
tf
I = ∫ Fdt =∆p t
ti
Imagine trying to catch an egg without breaking it .
How would you move your hands so that it didn’t break
when you changed its momentum to zero?

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 Mechanics-39

Collisions
◆ An inelastic collision is one in which the total
kinetic energy of the system is not conserved.

◆ A perfectly elastic collision is one in which the

colliding bodies stick together after collision
and the total kinetic energy is conserved.

◆ An elastic collision is when the kinetic energy

of the system is constant (i.e. conserved).

BEFORE AFTER

Note that the momentum of the system is always conserved.

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 Mechanics-40

Center of Mass
■ Center of Mass
◆ The overall motion of a system of particles can
be described in terms of the center of mass of
the system.
➤ Eg. football, boomerang.
◆ The center of mass of an object is the average
location of all the mass within a body. It is
sometimes called the balance point since it can
be determined empirically by balancing.
➤ It can be determined by hanging the object from
any point on the edge and drawing a vertical
line through the object.

Is the center of mass

of an object at the same
point as the center of gravity?

∑m x i
xCM = i

∑m i
i

1
rCM =
M ∫ rdm
If a cricket bat is cut in half a the center of mass,
do both halves have the same mass?
Engineering Physics Partial Lecture Notes
 Mechanics-41

Examples
■ Collisions:
◆ Two cars of equal mass approach an
intersection. One vehicle is travelling with a
velocity of 13.0m/s towards the east while the
other vehicle is travelling north with velocity of
v2i. Neither driver sees the other. The vehicles
collide in the intersection and stick together,
leaving parallel skid marks at an angle of 55.00
north of east. The speed limit for both roads is
60km/hr and the driver of the north-bound car
claims he was within speed limits when the
collision occurred. Is he telling the truth?

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 Mechanics-42

Examples
■ Momentum
◆ An 80.0kg astronaut is working on the engines
of his ship, which is drifting through space with
a constant velocity. The astronaut, wishing to
get a better view of the Universe, pushes
against the ship and much later finds himself
30.0m behind the ship and at rest with respect
to it. Without a thruster, the only way to
return to the ship is to throw his 0.500kg
wrench directly away from the ship. If he
throws the wrench with a speed of 20.0m/s
relative to the ship, how long does it take the
astronaut to reach the ship?

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 Mechanics-43

Chapter 10: Rotation

■ Rotation
◆ When dealing with the rotation of a fixed
object about a fixed axis it is called PURE
rotational motion.
➤ If a particle moves through a circle of radius r,
the distance it moves through is rϑ. (s = rϑ).
R ϑ is in radians
where one radian is the angle subtended
by an arc length equal to the radius of the arc

◆ The angular displacement of a rotating object

is:
∆θ = θ f − θ i

dθ
object is:
ω=
◆ The instantaneous angular speed
Whatofisathe
rotating
direction
dt
of the angular velocity?
Right Hand Rule

◆ The instantaneous angular acceleration of a

dω
rotating object is:
α=
dt
Engineering Physics Partial Lecture Notes
 Mechanics-44

Equations of Motion of a Rotating Object

■ Equations of Motion
◆ The kinematic equations of motion are similar
for a rotating object but velocity is replaced by
angular velocity ‘w’ and acceleration is
replaced by angular acceleration ‘α’.

ω f = ω i + αt
1 2
θ f = θ i + ω ti + α t
2
2 2
ω f = ω i + 2α (θ f − θ i )

◆ The linear position, speed and acceleration can

be related to their angular counterparts by:

s = rθ f
v = rω
at = rα

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 Mechanics-45

Examples
■ An electric motor rotating a grinding
wheel at 100rev/min is switched off.
Assuming a constant negative
acceleration (i.e. deceleration)of
2.00rad/s2,
◆ How long does it take the wheel to stop?
◆ How many radians does it go through before
stopping?

■ A helicopter has a main blade of

diameter 7.60m which rotates at
450rev/min and a tail blade of diameter
1.02m which rotates at 4138 rev/min.
◆ What is the speed at the tips of each of the
rotors?
◆ How does this compare to the speed of sound?

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 Mechanics-46

Moment of Inertia
■ Inertia
◆ is the resistance an object offers to a change
in it’s motion
◆ Mass - is a measure of the inertia of an object

◆ The moment of inertia of a system of particles

is:

I =∑i
m r
i i
2

◆ The moment of inertia of a rigid object is:

I = ∫r 2 dm

◆ The rotational energy can be described by:

w= rv hence
this relates to
KE = 1/2mv2
1
KR = Iω2
2
Engineering Physics Partial Lecture Notes
 Mechanics-47

Examples
■ The center of mass of a tennis ball
(3.80cm in radius) moves at 38.0m/s
and spins at 125rad/s.
◆ What is the ratio of the rotational kinetic
energy to the translational kinetic energy?

■ A car tyre has dimensions shown in the

picture. The tyre has two sidewalls of
uniform thickness 0.635cm and a tread
wall of 2.50cm and width 20.0cm.
Suppose it’s density is uniform with a
value 1.10x103kg.m3. Find the moment
of inertia through its center
perpendicular to the plane of the
sidewalls.
sidewall tread

33.0cm 16.5cm

30.5cm

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 Mechanics-48

Torque
■ Torque
◆ Torque is the tendency of a force to change
the rotation of an object about some axis. The
force F, acts on an object from a distance d,
exerts torque.

τ =Fd
◆ Torque is defined only when a reference axis is
specified. What is the torque on a wrench?

◆ The net external torque on a rotational system

is:

∑τ = Iα
Remember Newtons second law?
Apply a force and an object will accelerate.
In this case angular acceleration.

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 Mechanics-49

Examples
■ A fishing pole (length 2.00m) makes an
angle of 200 with the water while the
fish applies a force of 100N on the pole
at an angle of 370 to the water. What is
the torque exerted by the fish about the
axis perpendicular to the page and
passing through the fisherman's hand?

2.00m
100N
200 370

d
570 200
r 370 r F
F
200 370
570

τ = F ×d = F ×r
Engineering Physics Partial Lecture Notes
=100 ×2.00 ×sin
=84 Nm
 Mechanics-50

Example

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 Mechanics-51

Power and Work

■ Power
◆ The rate at which work is done by an external
force is rotating an object about a fixed axis is
a measure of the power delivered.

P =τω

■ Work
◆ The net work done by external forces in
rotating a rigid body about a fixed axis equals
the rate of change in the rotational kinetic
energy of the object.

1
∑W = 2
Iω

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 Mechanics-52

Examples
◆ A mass m1 and m2 are suspended by a pulley
that has radius R and a mass M. The cord has
negligible mass and causes the pulley to rotate
without slipping. The pulley rotates without
friction. The masses start from rest at a
distance d apart. Treating the pulley as
uniform disk, determine the speeds of the two
masses as they pass each other.

Two methods of achieving goal.

1. Conservation of energy (Example 10.15)
2. Torque and Newton’s second Law

R
M
m1
+

+
m2

m1 g
m1

d m2
m2 g

T2
T1
Engineering Physics Partial Lecture Notes
 Mechanics-53

Quantum Mechanics
■ Young’s Double Slit Experiment
◆ separates light from a single source into two
beams
◆ constructive and destructive interference seen
as light and dark fringes
◆ If electrons pass through a double slit then an
interference pattern is also produced.
◆ This pattern is the same as that produced by
photons with the same wavelength
Can electrons really pass through both slits at the same time?

■ Single Slit
◆ If the slits are alternately closed so that
electrons only pass through one slit at a time
then each slit produces a diffraction pattern
◆ If the single slits are added together they do
not give a diffraction pattern such as the
double slit.
◆ Therefore in a double slit experiment the two
slits cannot be considered independently. It is
impossible to determine which slit the
electrons went through.
The problem needs to be treated as if the
electron simultaneously passes through both slits.

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 Mechanics-54

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

◆ It is physically impossible to measure
simultaneously the exact position and exact
momentum of a particle.

◆ The error in each of the measured quantities is

given by:

∆x∆p ≥
◆ This uncertainty is not caused by any
experimental inaccuracy (errors) but by the
fundamental QUANTUM structure and WAVE
2
nature of matter.

◆ At any given time is is only possible to

determine the probability that a particle will be
at any given position, not its exact position.

This principle can be

used to show that the
Bohr Model of the
atom is incorrect.

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 Mechanics-55

Wavefunctions
■ Wave function
◆ The Wave Function ψ is a way of describing
the dual nature of the electron.

◆ The square of the wave function |ψ|2. is the

probability of finding the particle at a given
point at some instant in time.

■ Probability Density
◆ If an electron is considered to have a
wavefunction ψ then there is some probability
of finding an electron within a volume dx. This
is called the probability density and is |ψ(x)|2.

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 Mechanics-56

Particle in a box
■ Particle in a box.
◆ Allowed vibrations of a standing wave in a
string are a useful model in describing the
allowed states for a particle in a box

n=3

n=2
λ
L =n
n=12
y ( x ) = A sin ( kx )
2L L
λ=  n =1,2,3...
n
nπx 
ψ( x ) = A sin   
 L 
■ The energy of the particle is quantized.

1
En = mv 2 =
2
 h2 
En =
8mL2 
Engineering Physics Partial Lecture Notes
 
 Mechanics-57

QM
■ Schrodinger’s equation

d 2ψ 2m
2
= − 2
(
■ Particle in a well dx
◆ particles of sufficient energy can overcome the
well barrier
◆ This leads to a description of valence bands
and fermi levels in solids

■ Tunneling
◆ Particles can also tunnel through the wall
◆ This leads to applications in physics such as
➤ tunnel diodes
➤ Josephson Junction
➤ Alpha decay
➤ Solar energy
➤ quantum traps
➤ scanning tunneling microscopy

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 Mechanics-58

Application
■ Scanning Tunneling Microscopy
◆ based on the tunneling current between a metallic
tip, which is sharpened to a single atom point and a
conducting sample.
◆ A small bias voltage (mV to 3 V) is applied between
an atomically sharp tip and the sample. If the
distance between the tip and the sample is large no
current flows. However, when the tip is brought very
close ( 10 Å) without physical contact, a current (pA
to nA) flows across the gap between the tip and the
sample.
◆ Electrons can tunnel across the vacuum barrier
separating the tip and sample in the presence of
small bias voltage. This tunneling current is the
result of the overlapping wave-functions between the
tip atom and surface atom.
◆ sensitive to the gap distance between the tip and
sample, the local density of electronic states of the
sample and the local barrier height. As we measure
the current with the tip moving across the surface,
atomic information of the surface can be mapped
out.

◆ The STM measures the surface density of states.

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 Mechanics-59

STM
■ Quantum corral
◆ iron atoms on a copper surface at 4K are
manipulated into a corral 14.3nm across.

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 Mechanics-60

Chapter 42: Atomic Models

■ Thompson model
◆ volume of positive charge with electrons
embedded throughout.

■ Rutherford model
◆ scattering experiment showed most of the
atom was empty space
◆ planetary model where electrons orbit the
positive charged nucleus at set distances
◆ nucleus made of protons and neutrons
➤ difficulties are emission and centripetal
acceleration

■ Bohr model
◆ quantized energy levels
◆ emission (E = hf) arises from electrons
jumping between levels and emitting photons
of particular frequencies

■ Modifications:
◆ electron spin
◆ relativity

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 Mechanics-61

Chapter 42: Atomic Spectra

■ Atomic Emission Spectra
◆ An atom in an excited state makes a transition
to a lower energy state and emits
electromagnetic radiation of a particular
frequency.

■ Atomic Absorption Spectra

◆ An atom in a ground state can absorb
electromagnetic radiation at specific
wavelengths

■ Energy Level Diagram

◆ transitions occur between energy levels

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 Mechanics-62

Quantum numbers
■ allowed wavefunctions depend on four
quantum numbers
◆ n is the principle quantum number
➤ n = 1,2,3….
◆ l is the orbital quantum number
➤ l = 0, 1, 2…. n -1
◆ ml is the orbital magnetic quantum number
➤ ml = -l, -l+1, ….. l+1, l
◆ ms is the spin magnetic quantum number
➤ ms = +1/2, -1/2

■ Selection rules for allowed transitions

between energy levels in an atom

∆ = ±1
■ Pauli exclusion principle
∆m = 0,±
◆ no two electrons in an atom can be in the
same quantum state
➤ ie. no two electrons can have the same set of
quantum numbers

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 Mechanics-63

Atomic Spectra
■ Atomic transitions can occur through
◆ stimulated absorption
➤ photon stimulates atom to an excited state

◆ spontaneous emission
➤ atom in an excited state emits a photon
◆ stimulated emission
➤ atom in excited state is stimulated by a photon
to emit another photon (i.e. two photons
emitted).

◆ The above examples are from the hydrogen

atom.

◆ Another example is Fraunhofer lines which

appear when viewing the sun as the source.
Emission occurs in the sun. Absorption occurs
both in the outer layers of the sun and also in
the Earths atmosphere.

Can other suns also have these lines?

What does that tell us about other solar
Engineering Physics Partial Lecture Notes
systems?
 Mechanics-64

Atomic Spectra
■ X-ray Spectra
◆ x-rays are emitted when a metal target is
bombarded with high energy electrons or other
charged particles
◆ most of the bombarding particles are scattered
➤ this radiation is called Brehmstahlung radiation
➤ scattered elastically and in-elastically
◆ if the energy is sufficient to knock out an
electron from the K shell an electron of
particular energy will be emitted.
➤ appears as sharp peaks which are characteristic
of the material on the continuous background

The atomic transitions (adsorption and emission)

can be used to identify materials
using the techniques of spectroscopy.
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 Mechanics-65

Spectroscopy
◆ Spectroscopy is the measurement of a
spectrum from a source.
➤ solar spectrum
➤ gas spectrum
➤ solid spectra

◆ The source (electrons / x-rays / protons) is

directed at a sample which adsorbs some of
the energy, emits some energy and reflects or
scatters the rest.

◆ Examples are:
➤ XPS: X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
➤ PIXE: Proton induced x-ray emission
➤ AES: Auger electron spectroscopy
➤ Mass Spectrometry does not use energy
spectrum but rather charge to mass ratio to
identify elements.
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 Mechanics-66

Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

■ Spontaneous emission of light.

◆ Enough energy must be supplied to an atom to get it
into an excited state. It will then decay to a ground
state and emit light in the process. The emission is
called spontaneous because it requires no external
stimulus and, for a particular atom, the time interval
between absorption and emission is unpredictable.
Allowed transitions take about 10-8s while forbidden
transitions take up to 105 times longer (10-3)s.
■ Stimulated Emission
◆ If the atom is already in the excited state when a
photon interacts with it, the photon will stimulate the
atom to undergo a transition to a lower energy level.
A photon of exactly the same energy will be emitted.
Hence, photon amplification.
■ Population Inversion
◆ Normally, nearly all the atoms are in their ground
state.
◆ Stimulated emission is in direct competition with
absorption.
◆ a population inversion (more atoms in an excited
state than in the ground state) must occur for
continued emission.
◆ Excited state should also be metastable (stimulated
emission occurs before spontaneous emission)

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 Mechanics-67

Laser
◆ Highly monochromatic: narrow bandwidth (range of
frequencies), about 100 times smaller than gas
discharge
◆ Very coherent: investigated by separating beam into
two sub-beams and measuring interference over a
distance
◆ Well collimated: angle of divergence is small (1mrad)
➤ used to determine the Earth-moon distance (+/- 10cm)
by bouncing laser off reflectors on the moon
• Helium-Neon Laser
• Mixture of helium and neon gas at low pressure with
mirrors at each end.
• An Electric field is generated and electrons excite He
atoms into higher energy level E3.
• Collision transfer with Neon excites it into E2.
• E2 –E1 in Neon is forbidden but E1 –E2 is not.
• Hence population in E2 builds up and E1 population
rapidly depleted.
• atoms that emit light of the same frequency are
stimulated (resonance)
◆ leaky mirror allows about 1% of laser light out

E3 E2 LASER
Forbidden light
E1

Eg Eg

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 Mechanics-68

Chapter 43: Molecules and solids

■ Molecular bonds
◆ can be ionic bonding, covalent bonding,
hydrogen bonding or Van de Waal’s
■ Energy and Spectra of Molecules
◆ energy of a molecule is made up of its
electronic energy, vibrational energy,
translational energy, and its rotational energy.

E = Eel + Etran
◆ When two identical atoms are brought close
together the energy levels of the atoms
overlap. When large numbers of atoms are
considered, such as in a solid, band structures
may appear
➤ e.g. sodium (Na)
3p

3s

2p

2
Figure 43.19 s

1s

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 Mechanics-69

Chapter 43
■ Fermi energy
◆ The probability that a particular state having
energy E is occupied by one of the electrons in
a solid is given by:

1
f (E) = ( E −E f )
◆ the fermi energy is the level at which the e kB

probability of finding an electron drops to zero

◆ Conduction
Ef
E0

Conduction Band
◆ Insulation
Ef
Energy Gap

E0 Valence Band

■ Density of states

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 Mechanics-70

Chapter 44: Nuclear and Radiation

■ Nuclei
◆ atomic number Z is the number of protons in
the nucleus
◆ neutron number N is the number of neutrons
in the nucleus
◆ mass number A is the number of nucleons
(protons and neutrons) in a nucleus (A = N +
Z)

A
Z X
56
26 Fe
■ Isotopes of an element contain different
numbers of neutrons
◆ have the same Z value but different N and A
values

■ The mass of an isotope of 12

C is defined
as 12u
◆ where the u is the atomic mass unit (amu)
➤ u = 1.660540 x 10 -27kg
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 Mechanics-71

The Nucleus
■ The Nuclear force
◆ is a short range (2fm) [10-15m] and falls to
zero when distance between nucleons is >
several fm.
◆ Very strong attractive force that acts
between all nuclear particles.
◆ Magnitude depends on the relative spin
orientations of the nucleons
◆ It keeps the nucleus together despite the
repulsive Coulomb forces between like
charges.
◆ Independent of the charge of interacting
nucleons (there can use high energy e’s to
probe nuclei).

■ Energy
◆ The total energy of the nucleus is less than the
combined energy of the separated nucleons.
The difference is called the binding energy.

Eb ( MeV

◆ Mass of selected particles table 44.1

◆ use figure 4.9
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 Mechanics-72

Nuclear Models
■ Liquid drop model
◆ nucleons interact strongly with one another
and frequently collide analogous to thermal
agitation of a liquid drop.
■ Three major effects influence the
binding energy
◆ the volume effect
➤ for A>50 BE is proportional to A and therefore
to the nuclear volume.
◆ the surface effect
➤ surface nucleons have fewer neighbours and
hence reduce the binding energy
◆ the coulomb repulsion effect
➤ proton repels proton and therefore reduces the
binding energy
◆ atoms with large numbers of neutrons also
decrease the binding energy

Eb = C1 A
■ Independent-particle model (shell
model)
◆ each nucleon is assumed to exist in a shell,
similar to an atomic shell model.
◆ Nucleons exist in quantized energy states and
Engineering there
◆ Physics Partialare
Lecturefew
Notes collisions
 Mechanics-73

Decay processes
■ Types of Decay
◆ alpha decay: 4He
➤ X is parent nucleus, Y is daughter nucleus
➤ spontaneous decay, therefore relativistic energy
and momentum is conserved
Schrodinger’s Cat

A +). A− 4
◆ beta decay: electron (e-) or positron (e
Z Z −2X→ Y + 24H
➤ daughter contains same number of nucleons but
the atomic number is changed by 1
➤ another particle had to be included to conserve
momentum

A
X→ Y +e
A −
14
6 C →147
➤ named neutrino
Z Zand
+1 antineutrino; massless (or
very small), zero electric charge, spin 1/2,
A
X→ Y +e
A +
interacts very weakly with matter, therefore 7
12
N →16
Z −1
difficult Zto detect.
◆ gamma decay: high energy photon
➤ nucleus in an excited state decays to a lower
state and emits a photon. Can occur in
conjunction with other processes.

A
Z X ∗ → ZAX + γ
Engineering Physics Partial Lecture Notes
12
5 B∗ →
12 ∗
 Mechanics-74

Decay
■ Decay process
◆ If a radioactive material contains N0
radioactive nuclei a t=0, then the number of
nuclei after time t follows:

N = N 0 e −λt
◆ The decay process is exponential with a decay
constant l.
■ Half-life
◆ The half-life of a substance is how long it takes
for half the initial nuclei to decay.

1 −λt 1
Decay of Radioactive Substance
N 0 = N 0e 2

2 y = 4019.9e-0.2497x

3500
ln(2)
3000
t1 / 2 =
2500
λ
Counts

2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Time( hrs)

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 Mechanics-75

Activity
■ Units of radioactivity
◆ The activity of a sample is the number of
nuclei that decay in a certain time period
➤ becquerel (Bq)
◆ A becquerel is the SI unit of activity and us defined
a 1 decay per second.
➤ curie
◆ The curie (Ci) is defined as the activity of 1g of
radium.
◆ Equivalent to 3.7 *1010 decays/second

dN
R=
■ Example: Smoke Detector dt
◆ A common device that uses radioactive
material is a smoke detector.
◆ Generally it utilises alpha-decay of a source
such as 24195Am.

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 Mechanics-76

Example: Carbon Dating

◆ There is a small amount of carbon-14 found in
the atmosphere. Plants contain this same
amount of carbon during their lifetime but
when they die they no longer obtain carbon
-14. I.e. the amount if carbon in the sample is
fixed at their death. This carbon -14 decays
(to Nitrogen-14). By measuring the proportion
of carbon-14 in a sample the age of the
sample can be determined.
Example:
◆ of
What are some
the problems ➤ The activity of atmospheric carbon due to the
that can occur presence of carbon-14 is 0.255Bq per gram of
carbon. A 400mg piece of charcoal was found to
in this technique?
have an 14C activity of 139 decays/hour. The
half-life of 14C is 5730yrs. How old is the object?
◆ Solution

Engineering Physics Partial Lecture Notes

T1 = 5730 y
2
11
 Mechanics-77

Nuclear Reactions
■ Fission
◆ nuclear fission occurs when a heavy nucleus
such as 235
U splits into two smaller nuclei.
➤ The combined mass of the daughter nuclei is
less than the mass of the parent and the mass
defect (*c2) is the energy released.

+ HEAT

■ Fusion
◆ when two nuclei combine to form a heavier
nucleus the process is called fusion
➤ the mass of the final nucleus is less than the
combined mass of the original nuclei and energy
is released.
➤ Fusion of hydrogen is the source of the Sun’s
energy.

+ HEAT

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 Mechanics-78

Radiation Safety
■ Radiation Damage
◆ Radiation can cause damage to matter, the
degree and type of damage depends on the
type and energy of the radiation, and the
properties of the matter.
➤ For example, electromagnetic radiations such as
gamma or x-rays strips matter of electrons and
causes ionisation.
➤ However, alpha rays cause ten times more
biological damage than x-rays
■ Units of radiation
◆ 1rad = the amount of radiation that increases
the energy of 1kg of absorbing material by
1*10-2J.
■ Dosage
◆ Since the dose depends not only on the
amount of radiation but also on the type, the
RBE, relative biological effectiveness of the
different sources must be included
Radiation RBE factor
X-rays and Gamma rays 1
Beta particles 1.0-1.7
Alpha particles 10-20
Thermal neutrons 4-5
Fast neutrons and protons 10
Heavy ions 20

■ REM, radiation equivalent in man

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◆ REM = RAD x RBE
 Mechanics-79

Applications
■ Uses of Radiation
◆ carbon dating
◆ tracing
◆ materials analysis
◆ therapy
◆ food preservation

■ Example
◆ Problem 45.23: Assume that an x-ray
technician takes an average of 8 x-rays a day
and receives a dose of 5rem/yr as a result.
➤ Estimate the dose per photograph
➤ How does the technicians exposure compare
with low-level background radiation.
◆ Solution:
➤ Assuming they work about 50 weeks a year the
dose per photograph would be: 5rem/(50*5*8)
= 1/400 rem per photo (2.5millirem/photo)
➤ The background radiation is about 0.13rem/yr
so the technician receives about 38 times more
radiation than background levels
➤ Since the recommended rem limit is about
0.5rem/yr this is still quite high however for
whole body exposure the limit is 5rem/yr which
is what the technician receives.
➤ Dosages greater than 400rem result in 50%
mortality

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 Mechanics-80

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging

■ Nuclear Spin
◆ nuclei have spin since their components
(neutrons and protons) also have spin and
orbital angular momentum.
◆ Nuclear spin has an associated nuclear
magnetic moment µn.

■ Precession
◆ When in an external magnetic field a nuclear
magnetic moment (as well as electronic
magnetic moment) will precess at a frequency
proportional to the magnetic field.
Figure 44.5
◆ The magnetic moment can be parallel or
antiparallel to the magnetic field resulting in
two states.
◆ It is possible to observe the difference
between these states using Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance

■ NMR
◆ the application of an external oscillating
magnetic field which is adjusted to match the
precessional frequency causes the states to
“flip” resulting in an absorption of energy
(~10-7eV).
◆ The absorption of energy of a particular
frequency can be determined electronically
and imaging can occur.
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 Mechanics-81

Example: MRI of Sex

■ Magnetic resonance imaging of male and
female genitals during coitus and female
sexual arousal
◆ by Willibrord Weijmar Schultz, Pek van Andel,
Ida Sabelis, Eduard Mooyaart

Fig 3 Midsagittal image of the anatomy of sexual

intercourse (experiment 12). P=penis, Ur=urethra,
Pe=perineum, U=uterus, S=symphysis, B=bladder,
I=intestine, L5=lumbar 5, Sc=scrotum

http://www.studentbmj.com/back_issues/0100/papers/1596.html
Engineering Physics Partial Lecture Notes
 Mechanics-82

Exam Preparation

Engineering Physics Partial Lecture Notes

 Mechanics-83

figure

Intensity
wavelength

d1 d2

m1 g m 2g

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Engineering Physics Partial Lecture Notes

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