BEHAVIOURAL ADAPTATIONS

Behaviour in Animals

Innate versus learned behaviour

The study of animal behaviour is called ethology
The focus of this section is to look at the function of particular behaviour, rather than the mechanisms underlying a particular behaviour.

Innate Behaviour - definition

When a behaviour is essentially the same in all members of a species, the behaviour is call innate or inborn behaviour. It is genetically controlled List some innate animal behaviours

Learned Behaviour - definition

Learned behaviours are those that develop or change as we are shown how to do something. Copy, trial-and-error are some of the ways animals learn. When a behaviour is changed as a result of experience, learning has occurred. Learning enables an animal to adapt to change.

Behaviour Activity performed in response to stimulus Innate Behaviours

Behaviours that are essentially the same in all members of a species

Learned Behaviours
Behaviours that develop or change as a result of experience

Rhythmic behaviours
Eg. Eating, sleeping, seasonal migration

Conditioning respond to
stimulus that normally does not elicit response

Operant conditioning animal Communication behaviours Reproductive behaviours Competitive behaviours Dominance behaviours Territoriality Social interactions
relates behaviour with reward or punishment and repeats or avoids behaviour

Habituation cease to
respond to stimuli

Imprinting association with

an object after exposure to it very early in life

Observational learns from

observing actions of others

Innate Behaviours
Rhythmic Behaviours - Animals repeat behaviours at regular intervals - Different species of animals may follow different patterns of rhythmic behaviour - Differences in rhythmic behaviours may be a significant factor in the ability of a group of animals to exploit the resources within the area in which they live and avoid competition from other species. - Regulated by both internal and external factors - internal biological clock - external light

Feeding Behaviour
Feeding may be:On an individual basis On a group basis

Spider Webs
Many innate behaviours in spiders involve the use of silk in feeding and in reproduction Spider webs vary in their design and structure

Whales

The species of whales are classified into two major groups Toothed and Baleen. Differing structures result in differing behaviours related to functions Gulping and skimming techniques suit the structures of the baleen whales (p346) Bubble netting is used by the humpback whale (p347)

Migration
The movement of large numbers of animals over long distances from one area to another area, and their subsequent return to their original home, is called migration. Animals usually migrate using the same route each time. A diverse range of species migrate birds, fish, eels, insects and mammals

Migration
Some animals may take years to complete their migration cycle Winter and the disappearance of food migration. Very low temperatures can be fatal to some species Migration is an important survival strategy

Bird Migration
More than 1/3 of the worlds species of birds migrate

Why do birds migrate?

Birds need a constant supply of food Approach of winter, reduction in food supply. Migrate to warmer climate for a more abundant food supply Migratory behaviour enhances survival

How do birds know where to fly?

Innate, young birds are born knowing to migrate Sun, stars, Earths magnetic field help determine the direction of flight Magnetite has been found in the tissues of some birds. Its presence is related to the birds ability to navigate using the magnetic field.

Communication Behaviours
Communication in the animals is an innate behaviour. Can be through:- touch, posture, sound, visual display and chemical signals Communication behaviour is a response to a stimulus

Communication Behaviours
Important components of communication include: Stimulus for the communication Sender of a signal Receiver to whom the signal is directed The kind of signal sent How the signal is sent The behaviour of the receiver The setting in which the communication occurs How does the Bower bird communicate that he is a good potential mate?

Communication Behaviours
Messages to trick a competitor
Eg alarm calls to trick a competitor (p 349)

Communication Behaviours
The language of bees
The dance to indicate the location of a food source. Bees also use smell

Why is it important for survival for worker bees to communicate to each regarding the location of a food source.

Communication Behaviours
COMMUNICATION UNDER WATER
Sound is an important means of communication underwater Sound is transmitted through water for long distances. Light can only penetrate very short distances below the surfaces The range of whale and dolphin noises include: blips, clicks, groans, moans and snores, lasting from a few seconds to several hours.

Communication Behaviours
Why do whales sing?
To locate and identify each other During courtship

Communication Behaviours
Dolphins
Use various sounds to communicate different information Use sounds for location and navigation

Navigation, hunting Clicks Play-chase, pain Courtship, mating Threat Squawk Yelp Buzz

Echolocation for determining position

Alarm, fright, distress Resting, predator nearby

Squeaks, cracks, pops Silence

Communication Behaviours
CHEMICALS FOR COMMUNICATION Pheromones
Used for identifying the location of food sources (leaving a pheromone trail) Attract members of the opposite sex (eg female dogs release a pheromone in the urine to notify males she is ready for mating) Can act over long or short distances Very easy for insects and other animals to locate a mate, even in sparsely populated areas.

Social and Territorial Interactions

Social Interaction

Involves two or more individuals. May involve cooperation (mating, food source) May involve aggression and conflict as individuals or group to defend territory or select a mate

Social and Territorial Interactions

Reproductive behaviours (discussed further in chapter 12)

Social and Territorial Interactions

GROUP ORGANISATION

Size of groups and reasons for which the animals group varies A group may be permanent or stay together until its members are such that it splits in two Being a member of a group is safer than being alone Different kinds of groups are found in different species of animals Groups may be formed to make collecting food easier, for protection, for shelter or for mating. Whatever the reason, it increases the chances of survival of members of the group and the species.

Social and Territorial Interactions

GROUP ORGANISATION

Castes

Eg ants, bees, termites, some wasps Each caste has a different structure and performs a different function in the group

Social and Territorial Interactions

GROUP ORGANISATION Social Hierarchies

That is a pecking order. Fighting occurs until an animal knows its place in a group The higher an animal is in the pecking order the greater access to food and other aspects of life in the group Stronger animals in the group will have offspring that are more likely to be stronger members of the next generation

Social and Territorial Interactions

GROUP ORGANISATION Leadership
A complex social hierarchy Eg Baboons with a dominant male and other males in rank order behind Why must a dog owner be the leader of the pack?

Social and Territorial Interactions

GROUP ORGANISATION Territorial Behaviour

Eg The dreaded Magpie swoop!

Animals select a territory and defend it, protecting a mating territory or food source.

Social and Territorial Interactions

COMPETITION Animals may compete for nesting places, positions in an hierarchy, etc Group dynamics is important for survival and reproduction in many species.

Social and Territorial Interactions

COOPERATION
Animals often cooperate

Many animals congregate in groups. Wolves hunt in packs in order to corner their prey. A wolf hunting singly would not be nearly as successful a hunter, and so we can call group hunting an adaptation since it increases the wolves chances of survival.

Do Innate behaviours remain constant?

Innate behaviours are genetically determined and are similar in all members of the species. However, innate behaviour is not necessarily fully developed at birth and may be modified by learning. This learning comes through trial-anderror and experience.

LEARNED BEHAVIOURS
Some behaviours change as a result of maturation of the body of an organism due to hormonal and structural changes. These should not be confused with learned behaviours which are those that develop or change as a result of experience

 Table from page 343 repeat slide

LEARNED BEHAVIOURS
Conditioning
Eg food stimulus/response Pavlovs Dog experiment the ringing of a bell prior to feeding a dog. Eventually the dog salivates just at the ringing of the bell.

LEARNED BEHAVIOURS
Pavlovs experiment is known as Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning is trial-and-error

Operant Conditioning
Organisms make responses that have consequences
The consequences serve to increase or decrease the likelihood of making that response again The response can be associated with cues in the environment
We put coins in a machine to obtain food But we refrain when an Out of Order sign is placed on the machine

Key Aspects of Operant Conditioning

In operant conditioning, the stimulus is a cue, it does not elicit the response Operant responses are voluntary In operant conditioning, the response elicits a reinforcing stimulus, whereas in classical conditioning, the UCS elicits the reflexive response

Key Terms of Operant Conditioning

Reinforcement is any procedure that increases the response Punishment is any procedure that decreases the response Types of reinforcers:
Primary: satisfy a biological need Secondary: have learned value

LEARNED BEHAVIOURS
Habituation
The ability to get used to a repeated stimulus, such as a noise, is called habituation. Why is Habituation important for animals? - Animals will respond to a noise if they think it has been made by a predator. - Habituation enable animals to distinguish the unimportant noises and shapes from those that are important - Habituation allows animals to ignore meaningless stimuli and save energy for activities critical for survival.

LEARNED BEHAVIOURS Insight

Insight learning is related to the ability of an animal to apply past experience to solving a new problem without a trial-and-error period Most highly developed in humans Play forms an important part in developing problem-solving skills for later use.

LEARNED BEHAVIOURS Imprinting

The formation of an attachment to something in the environment shortly after hatching or birth is called imprinting The learning that takes place during imprinting is rapid and cannot be reversed

LEARNING FROM ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR

If we understand the natural behaviour of animals, we can also analyse and interpret any change in behaviour. A change in animal behaviour can sometimes indicate a change in the environment