Chi square Χ2 Χ2 = ∑(O – E)2/E

Class Red White

Observed 705 224

• Null hypothesis : Ratio of red : white is 3 : 1

•
Class Red White Total
Observed 705 224 929
Expected 696.75 232.25 929

∀ Χ2 = (705-696.75)2/696.75 + (224-232.25)2/232.25 = 0.0977 + 0.2931 = 0.03908

• From the Χ2 table, Χ2 at probability 0.05 (5%) and 1 degree of freedom is 3.84
• The null hypothesis is accepted. The ratio between red and white is 3 : 1
MN Blood Group - Codominance
Parents Children
Number Frequency Number Frequency

M 948 1024 0.304

MN 1568 1627 0.482
N 644 722 0.214
Total 3160 3373

Allele LM 3464 0.548 3675 0.545

Allele LN 2856 0.452 3071 0.455
Total 6320 6746
 Class Allele LM Allele LN
Χ2 = Σ(Ο – E)2/Ε
Observed 3675 3071

• Null hypothesis: No difference between the allele frequencies of the

children and the parents i.e. p = 0.548 and q = 0.452.
2.

Class Allele LM Allele LN Total

Observed 3675 3071 6746
Expected 3697 3049 6746

∀ Χ2 = (3675-3697)2/3697 + (3071-3049)2/3049 = 0.14 + 0.16 = 0.30.

• From the Χ2 table, Χ2 at the 5% level with 1 degree of freedom is 3.84.
• The null hypothesis is accepted, i.e. the is no difference in the LM and
LN frequencies between the children and the parental populations.
 Class L ML M L ML N LNLN LM LN
Observed 948 1568 644 0.548 0.452

• Null hypothesis: Genotypic frequency LMLM, LMLN, LNLN is in

accordance with the formula p2, 2pq, q2 where p is the frequency of
allele LM and q is the frequency of LN.
2. Class L ML M L ML N LNLN Total
Observed 948 1568 644 3160
Expected 949 1565 646 3160

∀ Χ2 = (948-949)2/949 + (1568-1565)2/1565 + (644-646)2/646

= 0.001 + 0.005 + 0.006 = 0.01.
• From the Χ2 table, Χ2 at the 5% level with 2 degrees of freedom is 5.99.
• The null hypothesis is accepted, i.e. genotypic frequency LMLM, LMLN,
LNLN is in accordance with the formula p2, 2pq, q2 .
 2 x 2 Table
Generatio Allele LM Allele LN Total
n
Parents 3464 2856 6320
Children 3675 3071 6746
Total 7139 5927 13066

A1 A2 Total
n(|ad-bc| -½n)² B1 a b (a + b)
Χ² =
(a+b)(c+d)(a+c)(b+d) B2 c d (c + d)
Total (a + c) (b + d) n = (a+b+c+d)

13066(|3464x3071 – 2856 x 3675| - 6533)²

Χ² =
6320 x 6746 x 7139 x 5927
= 0.13 with 1 degree of freedom
Probability Theory
Carrier Carrier
Aa x Aa

AA Aa aa
Normal Normal Albino
¼ ½ ¼
Addition rule: If an event can occur in more than one way, the
probability of the event in the sum of the probability of each event.
Example: the probability of getting a normal baby = … +  = 
Multiplication rule: The probability of several independent events
occurring together is the product of the probability of each event.
Example: the probability of getting the 1st child normal, 2nd child
albino and the 3rd child normal =  x … x  =9/64
 The Probability Method
(phenotypic or genotypic ratio)
RrYyCc x RrYyCc
Rr x Rr Yy x Yy Cc x Cc
RR Rr rr YY Yy yy CC Cc cc
¼ ½ ¼ ¼ ½ ¼ ¼ ½ ¼

Example 1: Frequency of genotype RRYy cc

Answer: ¼ x ½ x ¼ = 1/32 or 2/64
Example 2: Phenotype Wrinkled–Yellow–Red
Answer: ¼ x (¼ + ½) x (¼ + ½ ) = 9/64
 Forked-Line Method
(phenotypic or genotypic ratio)
1st child 2nd child 3rd child Proportion
¾A xx

¾A

¼a ¾x¾x…
A

 A ¾x…x¾
…a

… a ¾x¼x …

 A

A
… a
…a
 A Forked-Line Method
…a
… a
Binomial Theorem

(p + q)4 = p4 + 4p3q + 6p2q2 + 4pq3 + q4

A couple, both carriers of albino (Aa) intends to have 4 children.

Aa x Aa
AA Aa aa
¼ ½ ¼
1. What is the probability of having all normal children? p4 =(¾)4
• Probability of having 3 normal and 1 albino children? 4p3q = 4(¾)3(¼)
• Probability of having at least 1 normal child? p4 + 4p3q + 6p2q2 + 4pq3
(p + q)4 = p4 + 4p3q + 6p2q2 + 4pq3 + q4

Pascal triangle
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1

1 4 6 4 1
1p4 4p3 6p2 4p1 1p0
1p4q0 4p3q1 6p2q2 4p1q3 1p0q4
p4 4p3q 6p2q2 4pq3 q4
 Key Points

• Most organisms have sex chromosomes but sex

genes may also be found on autosomes.
• Evidence for sex determination in Drosophila
comes from study on Drosophila genetics and
gynandromorph.
• Evidence for sex determination in human comes
from the study on human sex anomalies, sex
mosaics and Sry genes.