Transmission, Switching & Signalling (TL-413)

Introduction to Switching Systems Telecommunication networks carry information signals among entities, which are geographically far apart. An entity may be a computer or human being, a facsimile machine, a teleprinter, a data terminal and so on. The entities are involved in the process of information transfer which may be in the form of a telephone conversation (telephony) or a file transfer between two computers or message transfer between two terminals etc. The communication switching system enables the universal connectivity. The universal connectivity is realized when any entity in one part of the world can communicate with any other entity in another part of the world. In many ways telecommunication will acts as a substitute for the increasingly expensive physical transportation. The telecommunication links and switching were mainly designed for voice communication. With the appropriate attachments/equipments, they can be used to transmit data. A modern society, therefore needs new facilities including very high bandwidth switched data networks, and large communication satellites with small, cheap earth antennas.

Elisha Gray and Alexander Graham Bell contributed significant works and filed paper related to telephony. The early stages of the development of telecommunication ere due to A.G. Bell, G. Marconi and C.E. Shannon. In 1876, Bell invented a telephone system. In 1897 Marconi patented a wireless telephone system. teletypewriter service was initiated in 1931. Electromechanical Switching; (familiar form of switch is a manually operated e.g voltage regulator) Step by Step Switching; In electrical controls, a stepping switch, also known as a stepping relay is an electromechanical device which allows an input connection to be connected to one of a number of possible output connections, under the control of a series of electrical pulses. It can step on one axis (called a uniselector), or on two axes (a Strowger switch). Stepping switches were invented by Almon Strowger in 1888.

Cross Bar Switching; In electronics, a crossbar switch (also known as cross-point switch, cross point switch, or matrix switch) is a switch connecting multiple inputs to multiple outputs in a matrix manner. Originally the term was used literally, for a matrix switch controlled by a grid of crossing metal bars, and later was broadened to matrix switches in general. It is one of the principal switch architectures, together with a memory switch and a crossover switch. A crossbar switch is an assembly of individual switches between multiple inputs and multiple outputs. The switches are arranged in a matrix. If the crossbar switch has M inputs and N outputs, then a crossbar has a matrix with M x N cross-points or places where the "bars" cross. At each cross point is a switch; when closed, it connects one of M inputs to one of N outputs. A given crossbar is a single layer, non-blocking switch. Collections of crossbars can be used to implement multiple layer and/or blocking switches. A crossbar switching system is also called a co-ordinate switching system

Different type of Cross Bar Switches

The electromechanical switching systems have been replaced by computer controlled switching systems referred to as stored program control (SPC). In SPC, switching is controlled by software program. The first computer controlled switch was introduced in 1960. Till 1965, computer controlled switching was used transistors and printed circuit technology. Since 1965 switching are based on microprocessors. Stored Program Control exchange (SPC) is the technical name used for telephone exchanges controlled by a computer program stored in the memory of the system. SPC allowed more sophisticated Calling features. As SPC exchanges evolved, reliability and versatility increased. In stored program control, a program or a set of instructions to the computer is stored in its memory and the instructions are executed automatically one by one by the processor. An immediate consequence of program control is full scale automation of exchange functions and introduction of a variety of new functions to users.

Types of SPC; There are basically two approaches to organizing stored program control: centralized and distributed. Early electronic switching systems (ESS) developed during the period 1970-75 almost invariably used centralized control. Although many present day exchange design continue to use centralized SPC, with advent of low cost powerful microprocessors and VLSI chips such as programmable logic array (PLA) and programmable logic controllers (PLC), distributed SPC became widespread by the early 21st century. The use of computers to control the switching led to the designation electronic switching system (ESS) or Electronic automatic exchange (EAX). In 1970, first electronic switching system No. 1 ESS or No. 1 EAX was introduced. Digital electronic switching matrices were first introduced into the U.S. Public network in 1976 with AT & Ts No. 4 ESS digital toll switch. By the mid 1980s the interoffice transmission environment has changed to almost exclusively digital.

Centralized SPC In centralized control, all the control equipment is replaced by single processor which must quite powerful. It must be able to process 10 to 100 calls per second, depending on the load to the system. This configuration may use more than one processor. The exchange resources and memory module containing the programs for carrying out various control functions may be shared by processor, or each has dedicated access path to exchange resources. Two processor-configurations are commonplace. Dual processor architecture may be configured to operate in one of these modes: 1. Standby mode (one active other dormant) 2. Synchronous duplex mode (Both processors executes same set of instructions and compare the results continuously.) 3. Load sharing mode (an incoming call is assigned randomly or in a predetermined order to one of the processors which then handles the call right through completion. Thus, both the processors are active simultaneously and share the load and the resources dynamically. )

Distributed Stored program control; As compare to Centralized SPC, it gives 1. Better availability 2. Reliability Vertical decomposition: Whole exchange is divided into several blocks and a processor is assigned to each block. This processor perform all the task related to that specific blocks. Therefore the total control system consists of several control units coupled together. For redundancy purpose processor may be duplicated in each blocks. Horizontal Decomposition: In this type of decomposition each processor performs only one or some exchange function

Introduction to Digital SPC (stored-program control) Switch

Electronic control of a telecommunications switching system by means of a program of instructions stored in bulk electronic memory

Advantages of SPC Switch

Highly flexible, Easy to maintain and Easy to extend the capacity. Equipment volume is much smaller and call connection speed is much faster. Good voice quality, good secrecy ISDN and IN

The Constitution of SPC (storedprogram control) Switching System

The digital SPC switch has mainly two big parts

The Hardware and The Software

The Hardware
Four parts:
Interface circuits Control system Digital switching network Public resource

Interface Circuits
Analog subscriber Digital subscriber Trunk side interface Analog trunk Digital trunk

Subscriber side interface

Analog Subscriber Interface (ASLC)

Battery feed test

Over voltage protection supervision Ringing control

Hybrid or 2/4-wire converter

CODEC&Filter

Control System
Control mode

The Centralized Control: Have only a central processor to handle the whole system Distributed Control: Have several processors distributed in the modules,and the basic functions are mainly realized by the modules

Working Mode

Load sharing Active /standby mode

Processor

Mainly perform call processing , connection and operation, management and maintenance

Office data Semi-permanent database Data Subscriber data

Switch software system

Program

Dynamic data

System program
Application program

Supporting program

SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS; Telecommunication is mainly concerned with the transmission of messages between two distant points. The signal that contains the messages is usually converted into electrical waves before transmission. Our voice is an analog signal which has amplitude and frequency characteristic. Voice frequencies. The range of frequencies used by a communication device determines the communication channel, communicating devices, bandwidth or information carrying capacity. The most commonly used parameter that characterizes an electrical signal is its bandwidth of analog signal or bit rate if it is a digital signal. In telephone system, the frequencies it passes are restricted to between 300 to 3400 Hz. Thus the network bandwidth is 3100 Hz. The bandwidth and bit rate for various types of system are;

Speech spectrum. The telephone channel over which we wish to send data are designed to transmit electrical oscillations (microphone converts sound into equivalent number of electrical oscillation) of voice. Fig described as a speech spectrum diagram. It illustrates human speech strength variations at various frequencies. Most of the energy is concentrated between 300 Hz to 3400 Hz.

Decibels. The decibel is a valuable unit for telecommunication because losses or gains in signal strength may be added or subtracted if they are referred to in decibels. The signal strength at various frequencies is expressed by the unit of decibel (dB) in telecommunication. The decibel is a unit of power ratio. The power ratio is expressed as

Where P1 is input power (Normally) and P2 is output power. The decibel is also used to be defined as the unit of attenuation. One decibel attenuation means that a signal has dropped to 0.794 of its original power. One decibel gain means that a signal has increased to 1.259 of its original power.

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION SWITCHING SYSTEM The purpose of a telecommunication switching system is to provide the means to pass information from any terminal device to any other terminal device selected by the originator. Telecommunication system can be divided into four main parts. They are;;; 1. End system or Instruments 2. Transmission system 3. Switching system 4. Signaling. End Systems or Instruments: The end system or instruments are a transmitter or receiver that are responsible for sending information or decoding or inverting received information or message into an intelligible message.

Transmission System: Signals generated by the end system or the instruments should be transported to the destination by some means. The transmission on links conveys the information and control signals between the terminals and switching centers. A transmission link can be characterized by its bandwidth, link attenuation and the propagation delay. To maintain signal quality, the signal must be regenerated after a certain distance.

Switching System: The switching centers receives the control signals, messages or conversations and forwards to the required destination, after necessary modification (link amplifications) if necessary. A switching system is a collection of switching elements arranged and controlled in such a way as to setup a communication path between any two distant points. A switching center of a telephone network comprising a switching network and its control and support equipment is called a central office. In computer communication, the switching technique used is known as packet switching or message switch (store and forward switching). In telephone network the switching method used is called circuit switching. Some practical switching system are step-by-step, cross barred relay system, digital switching systems, electronic switching system etc.

 Signalling

Systems: A signalling system in a data communication networks exchanges signalling information effectively between subscribers. Signalling provides the interface between different national systems. The introduction of signalling system was the big step in improving the PSTN.

Overview The relationship between signaling network and telecom network The development of No.7 signaling system The development goal of No.7 signaling system

The Development Goal

The general goal of the No.7 signaling system is to suggest an internationally standardized common channel signaling system with general applications fields so that the digital communication networks with digital SPC switches can work in the best status. Furthermore, such networks can provide sequential (Forming or characterized by a sequence)and highly reliable transmission with no loss and no repetition.

Signaling----Definition

It is the dialog language for the communication between various parts of the telecom network.

Signaling----Classification

Subscriber signaling: Between sub. & switch

Working area inter-office: Control the setup and release of call

Monitoring signals: Monitor the changes of call states or conditions in the lines Signaling function Selection signals Routing information Operation signals: Management and maintenance of telecom networks

Channel Associated Signaling

Transmitting path

Common Channel Signaling

Common Channel Signaling (CCS)

In telephony, Common Channel Signaling (CCS), in the US also Common Channel Interoffice Signaling (CCIS), is the transmission of signaling information (control information) on a separate channel from the data, and, more specifically, where that signaling channel controls multiple data channels.
Channel Associated Signaling (CAS)

Channel Associated Signaling (CAS), also known as per-trunk signaling (PTS), is a form of digital communication signaling. As with most telecommunication signaling methods, it uses routing information to direct the payload of voice or data to its destination. With CAS signaling, this routing information is encoded and transmitted in the same channel as the payload itself.

Common Channel Signaling System

v+s

Line terminal

ISDN line terminal s

v v v v

v+s v s

Exchange A
Register Signaling terminal

Exchange B Register

Line terminal ISDN line terminal

Signaling terminal

Channel Associated Signaling

v+s

v+s v+s v+s v+s

Line terminal

Line terminal

Register

Exchange A

Register

Exchange B

v+s

Advantages of CCS
Compared with Channel Associated Signaling, Common Channel Signaling has many important advantages Information can be switched between processors much faster than in channelassociated signaling. With a huge signal capacity, it can hold dozens or even hundreds of different kinds of signals, thus providing more new services.

With a great flexibility, it can provide more new services simply by modifying software to increase signals. Line signaling device is not needed any more at any trunk station, which shall greatly reduce investment costs.

Since line signaling is no longer needed, trunk devices can be used both in calls from A to B, and in calls from B to A. In such bi-directional working modes, even less circuits are required than when trunk circuits are respectively used in single call directions.

When a call is being set up, signals related to this call can be sent. In this way, the subscriber can change the already setup connections. For example, the subscriber can transfer one call to another place, or request a third party to join the present connections. Signals can be switched between processors so as to be used for maintenance or network management. The No.7 line signaling can provide powerful support for ISDN, IN, TMN (telecommunication management Network)and cellular mobile communication systems, as this signaling is their basis.

Disadvantages of CCS
The error rate of the common channel signaling system must be very low. Its reliability must be much higher than the channel associated signaling system. This is because once the data link fails, all related calls between the two related switches shall be affected. Bi-directional trunk working modes exist conflict of seizure (A Sudden Disorder). The SS7 systems that every transnational corporation produces are having some problems in compatibleness.

Common Channel Signaling Network

The CCS network consists of the following parts Signaling point (SP) It refers to the node in the signaling system that provides Common Channel Signaling. SP can also be divided into source points
OPC (Originating Point Code)

The SP that generate signaling messages

DPC (Destination Point Code)

The SP that receives signaling point code.

Signaling Transfer Point (STP) It refers to SP that transfer signaling messages from one signaling link to another. They are neither source points, nor destination points. That is, they are the middle node points during signaling transfer. OPC or DPC is 14-bit address (24-bit for China

OPC or DPC is not absolute. OPC and DPC are relative, the OPC of certain Office, for other Offices, is DPC. For example, the SP of switch A is 2_2_2, and SP of switch B is 3_3_3. If you work in switch A then 2_2_2 is OPC for A, and 3_3_3 Voice channels is DPC for A.

B
Signaling link

2_2_2

3_3_3

SIGNALING LINK It refers to the signaling message channel that connects an SP and another SP( or STP). SIGNALING LINK SET A bunch of signaling links directly connecting two SP (including STP) form one signaling link set. ROUTE One such set usually includes all parallel signaling links.

ROUTE SET It is also possible to set several routes between two SP

ROUTE SET

ROUTE3 Link Set 2

ROUTE1

Link Link Set 1

ROUTE2

The Associated Mode

In this mode, Messages related to the voice channel connecting two switches are sent on the signaling link that directly connects two switches.
Voice channels A B

Signaling link

The Quasi- Associated mode

This can be called a special case of the nonassociated mode. In this mode, signaling messages between switches A and B go through the several preset concatenated (To connect or link in a series or chain)signaling links, but voice signals go through the direct channels between A and B. Normally, different transmission carriers are used in the common channel signaling systems and their related voice links.
Voice Channels A Signaling link C B

Functions of Signaling Data Link Level

The 1st level defines the physical, electrical, and functional features of the signaling data link, and is thus similar to the OSI physical layer. It determines the connection method with the data link, and provides an information carrier for the signaling link. In digital transmission, signaling data links are usually digital channels at 64kbit/s.

Functions of the Signaling Link Level

The second level defines the signaling message transmission functions and procedure related to its transfer on a signaling data link. The second level and the first signaling data link used as a whole as an information carrier, provide a signaling link between two signaling points for the reliable transfer of messages.

The Signaling Network Level

Within a signaling network, each switching node is allocated a signaling point code, which is 14-bit address (24-bit for China). Every No.7 message then contains the point code of the originating node (OPC) and the destination point code or( DPC).

Message Routing
Selecting the signaling link that is used by each signaling message to be transmitted

Message Distribution
Send the message to a user part or level3functions after receiving the message

Message Authentication
To determine whether a signaling point is the destination point of a message after the signaling point receives the message.

The User Part

The user part is the fourth function level of the NO.7 signaling system. Its main function is to control the setup and release of various basic calls. The major user parts include the telephone user part (TUP), the ISDN user part (ISUP) and the signaling connection control part (SCCP)

FUNDAMENTALS FOR THE DESIGN OF TELECOMMUNICATION NETWORK A telephone network is composed of a variety of all processing equipments, interstate switching links and inters office trunks. Because of the random nature of the call request, the design of equipments switching links and trunks are quite difficult. Thus, the traffic analysis is the fundamental request for the design of cost effective, efficient and effective configuration of networks. The effectiveness of a network can be evaluated in terms of how much traffic it carries under normal or average loads and how often the traffic volume exceeds the capacity of

Fundamental problem in the design of telecommunication networks concerns the dimensioning of a route. To dimension the route, volume of traffic required grade of service and capacity (in bits per sec) must be known. Traffic. In telecommunication system, traffic is defined as the occupancy of the server in the network. There are two types of traffic viz. voice traffic and data traffic. For voice traffic, the calling rate is defined as the number of calls per traffic path during the busy hour. In a day, the 60 minutes

Average occupancy. If the average number of calls to and from a terminal during a period T second is n and the average holding time is h seconds, the average occupancy of the terminal is given by

The average occupancy is also referred as traffic flow of traffic intensity. The international unit of telephone traffic is the Erlang.

SS7 Protocol System Structure (Simple)

ISUP

DUP

TUP

User Part

MTP3NETWORK LAYER SCCP MTP2DATA Link LAYER

Message Transfer Part

MTP1PHYSICAL LAYER

ISUP (ISDN User Part):ISUP supports basic telephone call connect/disconnect between end offices. ISUP was derived from TUP, but supports ISDN and intelligent networking functions. SS7 is integral part of ISDN. Without SS7 implemented in the network, ISDN doesnt work. The basic function of the Integrated Services Digital Network User Part (ISUP) is the control of circuit-switched network connections between subscriber line exchange terminations. This includes basic voice and data services as well as supplementary services. The ISUP provides some of the functionality of the OSI layers 3 through 7.

ISUP handles voice as well as data and other services. The ISUP is also suited for application to dedicated telephone and circuit switched data networks and in analogue and mixed analogue/digital networks. Before developing ISUP standards group developed the TUP and the DUP. The ISUP furnishes all the functions of both the TUP and DUP and completely replaces them.

DUP(Data User part): DUP defines the necessary call control, and facility registration and cancellation related elements for international common channel signalling by use of SS7 for circuit-switched data transmission services. defines protocols necessary to set up, take down and charge circuit-switched data calls between users. An important difference between TUP and DUP are that the TUP always deals with 64kb/s channels whereas the DUP can support lower transit speeds. The DUP is defined in ITU-T Recommendation Q.741.

TUP (Telephone User Part): TUP is an analog protocol that performs basic telephone call connect and disconnect. defines the protocols necessary to set up, take down and charge telephone calls on international circuits. It is defined in ITU-T Recommendations Q.721 Q.725. (Telecommunication Standards)

The ISUP fulfills three requirements: rely on the MTP (message transfer part) or Network Service Part of SS7 for the transmission of the messages it is flexible in design to accommodate future ISDN enhancements it interworks with user network I.451 call control protocol

SS7 Protocol System Structure with ISUP features

Message Transfer Part (MTP): part of the Signaling System 7 (SS7) used for communication in Public Switched Telephone Networks. MTP is responsible for reliable, unduplicated and insequence transport of SS7 messages between communication partners.

Functional Levels for (MTP):

Signalling Data Link Functional Level OR (MTP1)

MTP Level 1 is described in ITU-T Recommendation Q.702, and provides the Signalling Data Link functional level for narrowband signalling links. For broadband signalling links, ITU-T Recommendation Q.2110 or Q.2111 describe the signalling data link function. MTP1 represents the physical layer. That is, the layer that is responsible for the connection of SS7 Signaling Points into the transmission network over which they communicate with each other. Primarily, this involves the conversion of messaging into electrical signal and the maintenance of the physical links through which these pass. In this way, it is analogous to the Layer 1

Signalling Link Functional Level

OR (MTP2):

MTP2 provides error detection and sequence checking, and retransmits unacknowledged messages. MTP2 uses packets called signal units to transmit SS7 messages. There are three types of signal units 1. Fill-in Signal Unit (FISU) 2. Link Status Signal Unit (LSSU) 3. Message Signal Unit (MSU).

ASSIGNMENT # 01(FISU,LSSU,M

Signalling Network Functional Level OR (MTP3)

The functions of MTP Level 3 may also be replaced with the Generic Signalling Transport Service described in ITU-T Recommendation Q.2150.0 as provided by MTP3b (Q.2150.1) MTP3 provides routing functionality to transport signaling messages through the SS7 network to the requested endpoint. Each network element in the SS7 network has a unique address, the Point Code (PC). Message routing is performed according to this address. A distinction is made between a Signaling Transfer Point (STP) which only performs MTP message routing functionalities and a Signaling End Point (SEP) which uses MTP to communicate with other SEPs (that is, telecom switches). MTP3 is also responsible for network management; when the availability of MTP2 data links changes, MTP3 establishes alternative links as required and propagates information about route availability through the network.

ASSIGNMENT # 02 (SS7 Protocols) TCAP, CAP, INAP, SCCP, MAP

Composition of Telecom Network

Logical Composition
Physical Composition

Logical Composition

Logically Speaking A Telecom Network is composed of Nodes, Links, Ends & Signaling

End: It is a Terminal or Service provision point. Telephone, Fax machine, computer(physical layer) Node: Switching System (network layer) Link: Transmission System (data link layer) Signaling: It is the language for communication between various parts of telecom network

Physical Composition

Physically speaking A telecom network is composed of Switching Network Transmission Bearer (channel) Network Supporting Network Terminal Equipment

Switching Network:
Comprises of multiple types of switches International office, Local terminal office switch, Remote subscriber unit and PABX

Transmission Bearer Network: Comprises of Trunk links, Local transmission links and access networks.

 Supporting

Network:

Comprises four types of networks Digital Synchronization Network Signaling Network Centralized Intelligent Network Telecom Management Network

Telecom Management Network

Centralized IN Supporting Networks Digital Synchronization Network

Signaling Network

Switching Network
Basic Network Transmission Bearer Network

Basic Structure of Telecom Local Network

To toll end office To toll office end End office

Tandem Branch office

PABX

End office
PABX

Branch office

PABX

Single Tandem Office Network Tandem :An arrangement of two or more objects placed one behind the other

Multiple-Tandem Office Network.

Types of Offices End office Branch office Tandem office Toll end office Toll tandem office Domestic toll International toll

Telecom Network Topologies

Overall Meshed Network

Star Network

Tree Network

Compound Network

Chain Network

Loop Network

Bus Network

Overall Meshed Network

Good reliability Usage of the links is low The network is not economic This type of network is only used when there are extremely high requirements for reliability

Star Network
It is the basis of the ordinarily used telephone network structure. One switching center is configured, which enables the calls among subscribers. The reliability of star network is lower than the overall meshed network, but the star network is much more economic than the overall meshed network.

Compound Network
It is developed on the basis of the star network. In the densely populated areas, different switching centers are established to form different star networks, which will be overall or partially inter-connected to form the compound network.

Tree Networks: Loop & Bus Networks: Chain Networks:

At present widely used in CATV distribution networks and private network (e.g. military networks).
Mostly used in computer communication networks. Normally used in private networks or micro-wave trunk public communication networks.

Development of Telecom Network

Digitalization Integration Intelligentization Broadband Personalization

Functions of Switching System

The switching office performs the following basic functions irrespective of the system whether it is a manual or electromechanical or electronic switching system.

Identity: The local switching center must react to a calling signal from calling subscriber and must be able to receive information to identify the required destination terminal seize (To put (one) into possession of something.) Addressing: The switching system must be able to identify the called subscriber from the input information (train of pulses or multiple frequency depends on the dialing facility). The address may be in same local centre or some other exchange. If the terminal or trunk group is busy, a suitable signal must be returned to the calling subscriber. If more than one free circuit, particular one will be selected.

Finding and path setup: Once the calling subscriber destination is identified and the called subscriber is available, an accept signal is passed to the switching system and calling subscriber. Based on the availability, suitable path will be selected. Busy testing: If number dialed by the calling subscriber is wrong or the called subscriber is busy (not attending the phone) or the terminal may be free (lifting the phone) but no response (not willing to talk or children handling), a switching system has to pass a corresponding voice message or busy tone after waiting for some time (status).

Supervision: Once the path is setup between calling and called subscriber, it should be supervised in order to detect answer and clear down conditions and recording billing information. Clear down: When the established call is completed, the path setup should be disconnected. If the calling subscriber keeps the phone down first, the signal called clear forward is passed to the switching system. If the called subscriber keeps the phone down first, a signal called clear backward signal is passed to the switching system. By clear signal, the switching system must disconnect the path setup between calling and called subscriber.

Billing: A switching system should have a mechanism to meter to count the number of units made during the conversation. The cumulative number of units made for a particular duration by the calling subscriber is calculated. This information and if any should be sent to the called subscriber. Requirements of Switching System All practical switching system should satisfy the following requirements for the economic use of the equipments of the system and to provide efficient service to the subscribers. Depends on the place (Rural or town, big town, city or big cities). The local exchange located, the service provided to the subscriber may vary. Some important requirements are discussed briefly.

High availability: The telephone system must be very reliable. System reliability can be expressed mathematically as the ratio of uptime to sum of the uptime and down time. The uptime is the total time that the system is operating satisfactorily and the down time is the total time that is not. In telephone switching networks, the availability or full accessibility is possible if all of the lines are equally accessible to all incoming calls. The full accessibility is also defined as the capacity or number of outlets of a switch to access a given route. If each incoming trunk has access to a sufficient number of trunks on each route to give the required grade of service is known as limited availability. The availability is defined as:::::

High speed: The switching speed should be high enough to make use of the switching system efficiently. The speed of switching depends on how quickly the control signals are transmitted. For instance, the seize signal from the calling terminal must be identified quickly by the system to realize the need of path setup by the subscriber. The common control should be used effectively to identify the called terminal or the free trunks to setup a path. Thus the switching system must have the facility of quick access of the switching equipment and networks. Low down time: The down time is the total time the switching system is not operating satisfactorily. The down time is low enough to have high availability. The unavailability of switching system may be due to failure of equipments, troubles in transmission media, human errors in switching etc.

Good facilities: A switching system must have various facilities to serve the subscriber. For example wake up calls, address identification on phone number or phone number identification on address, recording facilities, quick service for the emergency numbers, good accessibility etc. Also it should have good servicing facilities in case of repair of equipments, skilled technicians, standby systems, etc. Good facilities is possible any switching system whether it is at rural or town or in cities, if that exchange is not overloaded. High security: To ensure satisfied or correct operation (i.e. providing path and supervising the entire calls to pass necessary control signals) provision should be provided in the switching system. Duplicated common control circuits, registers, processors and standby systems are used provide high security.