Research Design

MMM I (B)

Definition of research design

It is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to research purpose with economy in procedure. It is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted ; it comprises the plan for collection, measurement & analysis of data. It is logical and systematic plan prepared for directing research study.

Definition Research Design

It is a blue print or detailed plan for how a research study is to be completed operationalizing variables so they can be measured , selecting the sample of interest to study, collecting data to be used as a basis for testing hypotheses and analysing the results. It is procedural plan that is adopted by the researcher to answer questions validly, objectively, accurately and economically.

Definition of research design

Research design is an aid for researcher in the allocation of limited resources by posing crucial choices in methodology. It is the plan and structure of investigation so conceived as to obtain answers to research questions.

Components of research design

Sampling design
Deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the given study.

Observational Design
Relates to the condition under which observations are to be made.

Statistical Design Concerns with the questions of how many items are to be observed (sample size) and how information and data gathered are to be analysed. Operational Design Deals with implementation part. How the techniques and procedures specified will carried out.

Need for Research Design

Facilitates the smooth sailing of various research operations. Makes research efficient i.e. yielding maximum information at minimum cost, time and efforts. Acts as a firm foundation for entire research work

Functions of Research Design

Identification and development of procedures and logistical arrangement required to undertake the study.
Emphasises quality to ensure their validity, objectivity & accuracy.

Features of good design

Minimise bias and maximises the reliability of the data collected and analysed. Yields maximal information and provides an opportunity for considering many different aspect of the problem. Design is related with purpose and objective of the study. Flexible, appropriate, efficient, economical.

Important concepts regarding Research Design

Important Concepts regarding to Research Design

Dependent and independent variable Extraneous variable Control Confounded relationship Research hypothesis Experimental and non experimental hypothesis testing research Experimental and control groups Treatment Experiment Experiment units

Concepts
Dependent and independent variable A concept which can take different quantitative values is called variable. e.g. Weight, Height, income, etc A phenomenon which can take different values within specific range even in decimal points are known as continuous variable. If one variable depends on other variable it is termed as a dependent variable. The variable which is antecedent is known as independent variable.

Extraneous variable Independent variable that are not related to the purpose of study but may not affect dependent variable are termed as extraneous variable.

Concepts
Control Minimize the influence or effect of extraneous variable. Confounded relationship When the dependent variable is not free from influence of extraneous variable then the relationship between dependent and independent variable is known as confounded relationship. Variables are said to be confounded by extraneous variable. Research hypothesis It is predictive statement that relates an independent variable with dependent variable.

concepts
Experimental and non experimental hypothesis testing research When purpose of research is to test a research hypothesis it is termed as a hypothesis testing research. Research in which independent variable is manipulated experimental Research in which independent variable is not manipulated non experimental Experimental and control groups In an experimental research when a group is exposed to usual conditions it is termed as control group. In an experimental research when a group is exposed to some novel and special conditions it is termed as experimental group.

concepts
Treatment Different conditions under which experimental and control group are put are referred as treatments.
Experiment The process of examining truth of a statistical hypothesis is known as experiment. Experiment units The pre determined plots or the blocks where different treatments are used are known as experimental group.

Research Design Classifications

RESEARCH DESIGNS

EXPLORATORY RESEARCH DESIGN

CONCLUSIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

Classification of Research Designs

Category
The degree to which the research question is crystallized The method of data collection The power of researcher to produce effects in the variables under study The purpose of the study The time dimension The scope, breadth and depth of the topic The research environment

Options
1) 2) 1) 2) 1) 2) 1) 2) 1) 2) 1) 2) 1) 2) 3) 1) 2) Exploratory study formal study Monitoring Communication study Experimental Ex post facto Descriptive Casual Cross sectional Longitudinal Case Statistical study Field setting Laboratory Simulation Actual routine Modified routine

The participants perception of research activity

Different Research Designs

Research Design in case of exploratory research Research Design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies Research Design in case of hypothesis testing research

Research Design for exploratory or formulative studies

Exploratory Research.
The purpose of exploratory studies is to formulate a problem for a more precise investigation or to develop hypotheses. However, an exploratory study can also be conducted to enhance the familiarity of researcher with the phenomena; he/she wishes to study some time later in a more scientific way.

Exploratory research
Exploratory studies also known as formulative research studies. Exploration studies are required when researcher lack a clear idea of problem. Through exploration researcher develop concepts more clearly, establish priorities, develop operational definitions and improve final research design.

Exploratory Research.
For instance,
A researcher might wish to find out which all factors /attributes are used in purchase decision; How the consumers are influenced by the different forms of communications? What is the possible explanation for a given marketing phenomenon (say, sales drop) and establish priorities for future research? A manufacturer faced with decreased sales might conduct an exploratory research to generate possible explanations.

Research Design in case of exploratory research Methods used

Qualitative Techniques - Individual in depth interviews - Observation - Films, photographs, videotape - Projective techniques and psychological tests - Case studies - Elite or expert interviewing - Proxemics and kinesics (Time, work, motions studies)

Research Design in case of exploratory research

Emphasis on discovery of ideas and insights Inbuilt flexibility in design Following methods are widely used in exploratory studies
Survey of concerning literature (secondary data analysis) Focus groups Experience survey Analysis of insight stimulating examples Two stage design

Research Design in case of exploratory research

1) Secondary data analysis Studies made by others for their own purposes represent secondary data. Internal sources External sources Internet Keyword search Bibliographical surveys

Research Design in case of exploratory research

2) Focus Groups Focus group is a group of people (typically 6 to 10 participants) led by trained moderator who meet for 90 minutes to 2 hours. Moderator use group dynamic principles to focus or guide group in an exchange of ideas, feelings, experiences on a specific topic. The ideas generated through focus group activities may be later tested quantitatively. Very useful in consumer studies. Useful for new product concepts.

Research Design in case of exploratory research

3) Experience survey Secondary data are having their own limitations and disadvantages. Experience survey means survey of people who have had practical experience with the problem to be studied. In depth interview are taken. Flexibility should be incorporated.

Research Design in case of exploratory research

4) Analysis of insight stimulating examples It is very useful where very little experience. Cases that provide sharp contrast are taken for study.

Research Design in case of exploratory research

5) Two stage design

Design for conclusion oriented research

CONCLUSIVE RESEARCH
Conclusive research is typically more formal and structured than exploratory research. It is based on large, representative samples, and the data obtained are subjected to quantitative analysis. The findings from this research are considered to be conclusive in nature in that they are used as input into managerial decision making.

CONCLUSIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

CAUSAL RESEARCH DESIGN

Descriptive Research
Descriptive research studies are typically concerned with determining the frequency with which something occurs or the relationship between two variables. The descriptive research studies are typically guided by an initial hypothesis.

Descriptive Research
A study of trends in the consumption of a product with respect to such characteristics as age, sex, and geographic location would be a descriptive research study. Studies to examine if sales of a product depend on dealers/sales representatives satisfaction or advertising of the product, would be descriptive research studies.

Descriptive Research
Some descriptive research studies are conducted at single fixed time which gives a snapshot view of the problem. Other studies provide a moving description that helps researchers to follow events, people or consumer behaviour over periods of time.

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

CROSS-SECTIONAL DESIGN

LONGITUDINAL DESIGN

Cross-Sectional Research Designs

A researcher collects data for his/her research at one point of time. This research design is most frequently used by researchers because it is the simplest and least costly alternative. The most striking disadvantage of this research design is that it cannot cover a processes or a change over a period of time.

Longitudinal Research Designs

To describe the changes in the features of a market phenomenon longitudinal research designs are used. In this research designs the phenomenon is studied at more than one time. It is usually more complex and costly than cross-sectional research designs. It is also more powerful , especially when researchers seek answers to questions about change over a period of time. Example : Change in brand loyalty over a period of time.

Exploratory Vs Descriptive research Designs

Exploratory / Formulative
Overall Design Flexible (opportunity to explore the different aspects of problem)

Descriptive / Diagnostic
Rigid (maximize reliability of the outcome and reduces bias)

Sampling Design
Statistical Design Observatio nal Design

Non probability
No preplanned Design for analysis Unstructured Instruments used for data collection

Probability
Pre planned design for analysis Structured and well thought and designed instruments for data collection Advanced decision regarding operational procedures

Operational Design

No fixed decision regarding operational procedures

Research Design in case of hypothesis testing research or causal research

CAUSAL RESEARCH DESIGN

PREEXPERIMENT

TRUEEXPERIMENT

QUASIEXPERIMENT

Causal Research CAUSAL RESEARCH

When we have a problem that is already known and have a description of it, we may like to know why things are the way they are. The purpose of causal research is to explain "why". In causal research, the researcher goes beyond focusing on a topic or portraying it. He or she looks for causes and their effects and their relationships.

Causal Research
A causal research is concerned with determining cause-effect relationships. Causal research studies typically take the form of experiments, because experiments are best suited to determine cause-effect relationships.

Causal Research
For instance, a manufacturer may be interested in ascertaining the effectiveness of different advertising appeals. One way for the company to proceed would be to use different ads in different geographic areas and investigate which ad generated the highest sales.

Causal Research
In effect, the company would perform an experiment and if designed properly, the company would be in position to conclude that one specific appeal caused the highest rate of sales.

Causal Research
Quite often a marketing manager wants to make causal inferences about the market behaviour. For example: to assess the impact of a change in retail price on the brands market share; the effect of different advertising themes upon sales of a product; the impact of a certain promotion offer; to measure the sales effectiveness of a new packaging; self space; market response to premium vis--vis economic quality of product.

Basic Principles of experimental design

Prof. R. A. Fisher Roth Amsted Experimental Station Center for agricultural research in England
Principle of replication Principle of Randomization Principle of local control

Basic Principles of experimental design - Principle of replication

The experiment should be repeated more than once. By doing so the statistical accuracy will be increased. Replication is introduced in order to increase the precision of a study i.e. increase accuracy with which the main effects and interactions can be estimated.

Basic Principles of experimental design - Principle of Randomization

It provides protection when we conduct an experiment against the effects of extraneous factors by randomization. It indicates that we should design or plan the experiment in such a way that the variation caused by extraneous factor can be all be combined under the general heading of chance. Randomization can have better estimate of experimental error.

Basic Principles of experimental design - Principle of local control

Extraneous factor is made to vary deliberately over as wide as necessary and this needs to be done in such a way that the variability it causes can be measured and hence eliminated.

Causal Research
A cause-effect relationships refers to relationships between two variables where one variable (characteristic or occurrence) X determines another variable (characteristic or occurrence) Y.

Causal Research
For example, if a researcher wishes to test a cause-effect relationships that sales promotion offer (X) causes higher sales of a product (Y) by comparing sales of out let exposed to sales promotion offer (X) with one that has not been exposed, he has to measure the two out lets with respect of Y, either during or after exposure to X.

The Logic of Causal Inference

Correlation
Cause-Effect Relationship

Causality

The Logic of Causal Inference

S G G

Correlation
Smoking Grades

S or S

The Logic of Causal Inference

Causality : Cause-Effect Relationship
S G E G E Smoking Grades Emotional Status S or S S G

Cause-Effect Relationship
CONDITIONS OF CAUSALITY
Two variables are said to be causally related :
If (1) There is an empirical correlation between them, (2) The relationship is not found to be the result of the effects of some third variable on each of the two initially observed, and (3) The cause precedes the effect in time.

Time Order
The causing event must occur either before or simultaneously with the effect.
IN -STORE SEVICE
SALES OF A DEPARTMENT STORE

CORRELATION / CONCOMITANT VARIATION

Concomitant variation is the extent to which a cause X and an effect Y vary together.
LEVEL OF EDUCATION (X)
PURCHASE OF FASHION CLOTHING (Y)

ABSENSE OF OTHER POSSIBLE CAUSAL FACTOR: THE THIRD VARIABLE

The absence of other possible causal factors means that the factor or variable being investigated should be the only possible causal explanation.

Family Size

Eat Frequently in Fast-Food Restaurants

INCOME

PRESENCE OF OTHER POSSIBLE CAUSAL FACTOR: THE THIRD VARIABLE

The presence of other possible causal factors means that the association between the variables is caused by a third variable.
LEVEL OF EDUCATION (X) PURCHASE OF FASHION CLOTHING (Y)

INCOME

Pre-Experimental Designs..
E X
E = Experimental Group X = Incentive Scheme

O = Rate of Absenteeism

True Experimental Designs

Pre-Test - Posttest- Control Group Design
E C R R O1 O3 X O2 O4
D1 = O2 O1 D2 = O4 O3 ND = D2 D1

Group of sales persons exposed to training C = Group of sales persons not exposed to training R = Random Assignments of Sales persons O1 = Sale proceeds of group E before training X = Training O2. = Sale proceeds of group E after training O3 = Sale proceeds of group C before training O4 = Sale proceeds of group C after training D1 = Difference in sales of group E before and after the training D2 = Difference in sales of group C before and after the training ND = Net Difference in Sales
E =

Quasi-Experimental Research Designs

Pre-test Post-test Non-equivalent Control Group Design

E C
E O1 X O2 C = = = = =

O1 O3

O2 O4

O3 = O4 =

City where new advertising theme is introduced Sale proceeds of an outlet in City-E before advertisement A new advertising theme Sale proceeds of the outlet in City-E after advertisement City (appear to be similar as E) where new advertising theme is not introduced Sale proceeds of an outlet in City-C before advertisement Sale proceeds of an outlet in City-E after advertisement

Time-Series Designs.
Simple Time-Series Designs O 1 O 2O 3 O 4 O 5
O1 to O5 before X O6 to O10 after =

O6 O7 O8 O9 O10

Measurements of Dependent Variable introduction of X = Independent Variable = Measurements of Dependent Variable introduction of X

Important Experimental Designs

Informal
Before and after without control design After only with control design Before and after with control design

Formal
Completely randomized design Randomized block design Latin square design Factorial Design

Important Experimental Designs

Pre experimental
After only study One group pre test post test design Static group comparison

True experimental
Pretest Posttest Control Group Design Post test only control group Design

Quasi experimental
Non equivalent Control Group Design Separate sample Pretest - Posttest Design Group Time series Design

After only study

One group pre test post test design

Static group comparison

Pretest Posttest Control Group Design

Post test only control group Design

Non equivalent Control Group Design

Separate sample Pretest - Posttest Design

Group Time series Design

Completely randomized design

Randomized block design

Latin square design

Used in agricultural research E.g. five fertilizers we have to study extraneous factors soil fertility Type of Seed (Blocking factors) Similar to two way ANOVA technique.

Factorial Design

Steps in Conducting experiment

Select relevant variables Specify the treatment level Control the experimental environment Choose the experimental design Select and assign the subjects Pilot test, revise and test Analyze the data

Validity in Experimentation
Whether measure accomplishes its claim. Internal validity Do the conclusions we draw about the demonstrated experimental relationship truly imply cause? External Validity Does an observed casual relationship generalize across persons, settings and times?

Threats to internal validity

History Maturity Testing Instrumentation Selection Statistical regression Experimental mortality

Threats to external validity

The reactivity of testing on X Interaction of selection and X Other reactive factors