English Grammar

Session I
Topics to be covered :
Introduction to Parts of Speech Nouns Articles Pronouns Exercises on the topics Practice Tests

Parts of Speech
Sentences, clauses and phrases are made of Words. According to their nature and function in the sentence, words are divided into eight classes, called Parts of Speech.
Nouns (names of persons, places or things (Concrete and abstract) Pronouns (words used instead of nouns) Verbs (Words which describe the condition of the subject, i.e. what the subject does, or what happens to it, or what it is) Adjectives (add something to the meaning of noun) Adverbs (add something to the meaning of a verb, an adjective and an adverb) Prepositions (words used (placed before) with a noun or a pronoun to show how the person or thing denoted by the noun or pronoun stands in relation to something else. Conjunctions (link words, phrases, and clauses) Interjections (express some sudden feeling or emotions) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

7. 8.

Parts of Speech
Oh dear (interj)! but (conj) why (adv) on (prep) earth (N) are (V) you (P) angry (adj)? God (interj)! The (adj) hungry (adj) chased (V) the (adj) mouse (N) under (prep) the (adj) table (N) and (conj) quickly (adv) snaffled (V) it . He is one of those thoughtless persons who do not attend to problems until they become dangerously huge, what a character!

Parts of Speech
This is an oil painting. He wanted some oil for the bicycle. He wanted to oil his bicycle. Minding your own business is second nature in these parts. She wanted to part her hair. She put a part in her hair. Katrina is a part owner of the business. He went to water the grass. She went to get a drink of water. The wonderful aroma from the kitchen makes my mouth water. She feels well. Tears welled in my eyes. OR Anger welled up in me. Business is going well. I'm not feeling well . Well, what do you think? She drew some water from the well.

Nouns: Types
Nouns have two categories and five types:
1. Countable Nouns 2. Uncountable Nouns i. Common noun (city, country, company) ii. Proper noun (Mumbai, India, Reliance) iii. Collective Noun (team, army, herd) iv. Material Noun (iron, water, blood, hair) v. Abstract Noun (A. Feelings : hatred, happiness; B. Qualities : wisdom, beauty; C. Actions: smoking, singing)

Nouns: Types (Contd)

III. Concrete Nouns: names anything (or anyone) that you can perceive through your physical senses: touch, sight, taste, hearing, or smell. (e.g. spaghetti, muffins, perfume, water, book, room, pen, composer, boy, car, gold, silver, clay, stone, wood, cotton, iron, wool ) The judge handed the files to the clerk. Whenever they take the dog to the beach, it spends hours chasing waves. The real estate agent urged the couple to buy the second house because it had new shingles (roofing). As the car drove past the park, the thump of a disco tune overwhelmed the string quartet's rendition of a minuet. The book binder replaced the flimsy paper cover with a sturdy, clothcovered board.

Nouns: Types (Contd)

V. Countable nouns:A countable noun (or count noun) is a noun with both a singular and a plural form, and it names anything (or anyone) that you can count. (e.g. book (s), continent (s), dollar (s), litre (s), fork (s), suitcase (s), bag (s), rumour (s), shower (s), journey (s), machine (s), sight (s). In each of the following sentences, the highlighted words are countable nouns: We painted the table red and the chairs blue. Since he inherited his aunt's library, Jerome spends every weekend indexing his books. Miriam found six silver dollars in the toe of a sock. The oak tree lost three branches in the hurricane. Over the course of twenty-seven years, Martha Ballad delivered just over eight hundred babies.

Nouns: Types (Contd)

VI. Uncountable nouns:is a noun which does not have a plural form, and which refers to something that you could (or would) not usually count. (e.g. water, sugar, salt, money, music, electricity, happiness, excitement, accommodation, land, research, advice, equipment, laughter, rice, applause, evidence, leisure, rubbish, baggage, fruit, lightning, scenery, behaviour, fun, litter, shopping, bread, furniture, luck, sightseeing, camping, gossip, luggage, stuff, cash, harm, machinery, thunder, clothing, health, money, toast, countryside, help (but Thanks. Youve been a great help.), news, traffic, crockery, homework, pay, transport, cutlery, housework, permission, travel, violence, pollution, housing, damage (harm or injury to property or a person), jewellery, progress, weather, education (but I had a good education _used in less general sense.), knowledge (but A Knowledge of Spanish is essential) , proof, work (A job; employment :but a work of art, the works of shakespeare, a steel works) . An uncountable noun always takes a singular verb in a sentence, and we use this/that and it. (e.g. This milk is off. I will pour it down the sink.). Uncountable nouns are neither singular nor plural.

Usages: Nouns
Proper nouns are regularly singular, but may be made plural when we wish to speak of several persons or things bearing the same name; e.g., the Washingtons, the Americas, etc. Proper nouns can be used as common nouns and hence preceded by an article. e.g. (I) You need a Chidambaram to address the ills of American Economy. (II) We dont need an Emerson or a Thoreau to keep our national conscience alive.

Usages: Nouns
Certain materials (nouns) differ in strength, purity, etc. Hence it is acceptable to make the nouns plural, and say teas (e.g. fruit teas, decaf teas), tobaccos, paints, oils, candies, clays, coals. Certain nouns have no corresponding singular and therefore it imperative for us to assign them plural verbs (aborigines, amends, assets, thanks, obsequies, premises (building), fetters, proceeds, alms, goods, belongings, clothes, congratulations, earnings, odds, outskirts, particulars, remains, riches (wealth), surroundings, thanks, troops, tropics, Arms, (Usages: i. The goods were found to be defective. ii. My belongings have been destroyed in a fire. iii. These trousers need cleaning. (but This pair of trousers needs cleaning.). (iv) The unexpected riches of Georgian culture have surprised the world. (v) These premises are used by the local football team.

Usages: Nouns
A few interesting facts about nouns
A. Cousin is never followed by brother or sister. B. Poor people is a slang use. It should be the poor . C. Signature should be used in place of the abbreviation sign. D. Food taken once is meal and not meals. Meals means both lunch and dinner and we cannot take them together. E. Vacation is one term. Hence it is singular. F. Tickets mean the number of tickets. Ticket means the mode of entry.

Usages: Nouns

G.
H. I. J. K. L.

A few interesting facts about nouns

English teacher/professor is slang. It should be the teacher/professor of English . Noun or Pronoun after One of should always be plural. Room in a compartment or on a bench, etc. means unoccupied seat. So, vacant room is incorrect usage. Witness means knowledge brought in proof. Evidence denotes means of proving an unknown or disputed fact. Family members is a slang use. The correct form is member of the family. The use of double possessive should be avoided. It is better to write the son of my uncles friend than my uncles friends son.

Usages: Nouns

G. H.

A few interesting facts about nouns

The use of (s) is usually limited to living things, of is used in the case of lifeless things, e.g. the girls leg; but the leg of the table. When two nouns indicate common possession, (s) is added to the later one; when they indicate separate possession, (s) is added to each one of them: e.g. (Mohan and Sohans father; Mohans and Sohans father) Your date of birth is an improper construction. The correct construction is, the date of your birth. Likewise, the state of his health is a proper construction. And his state of health is not. Entry to the cinema is by ticket is a proper construction and Entry to the cinema is by tickets is not. This Minar is built of bricks and stones is an improper construction. The correct construction is, This Minar is built of brick and stone.

I.
J. K. L.

TYPES OF PRONOUNS

PERSON 1st Person I, We

PERSONAL Subjective Objective Me, Us

POSSESSIVE My, Mine, Our(s)

REFLEXIVE / EMPHATIC Myself, Ourselves

2nd Person

You

You

Your(s)

Yourself, Yourselves

3rd Person

He, She, It, They

Her, Him, It, Them

Her(s), His, Its,Their(s)

Himself, Herself, Themselves

Pronouns: Types
II. Demonstrative

Pronouns: A demonstrative pronoun ("this," "that," "these," and "those) points to and identifies a noun or a pronoun. "This" and "these" refer to things that are nearby either in space or in time, while "that" and "those" refer to things that are farther away in space or time. This must not continue. This is puny; that is the tree I want. Three customers wanted these. III. Interrogative Pronouns :An interrogative pronoun ("who," "whom," "which," "what, . "whoever," "whomever," "whichever," and "whatever") is used to ask questions. Who wrote the novel Rockbound? Whom do you think we should invite? To whom do you wish to speak? Whoever told you so? Whatever are you doing?

Pronouns: Types
(IV) Relative Pronouns: You can use a relative pronoun (who," "whom," "that," and "which, "whoever," "whomever," and "whichever) is used to link one phrase or clause to another phrase or clause. You may invite whomever you like to the party. The candidate who wins the greatest popular vote is not always elected. In a time of crisis, the manager asks the workers whom she believes to be the most efficient to arrive an hour earlier than usual. Whoever broke the window will have to replace it. I will read whichever manuscript arrives first. This is the question the solution of which has baffled philosophers of all ages. The moment which is lost is lost for ever.

Pronouns: Types
(V) An indefinite pronoun :("all," "another," "any," "anybody,"

"anyone," "anything," "each," "everybody," "everyone," "everything," "few," "many," "nobody," "none," "one," "several," "some," "somebody," and "someone.) is a pronoun referring to an identifiable but not specified person or thing. Many were invited to the lunch but only twelve showed up. The office had been searched and everything was thrown onto the floor. We donated everything we found in the attic to the woman's shelter garage sale. Although they looked everywhere for extra copies of the magazine, they found none. Make sure you give everyone a copy of the amended bylaws.

Pronouns: Types
VI. Distributive Pronouns: Each, either, neither are called Distributive Pronouns because they refer to persons or things one at a time. For this Reason they are always singular and as such followed by the verb in the singular. 1. Each of the answers is worth twenty points. 2.Each of these horses costs five thousand rupees.3. These horses cost each five thousand rupees. *****Note: When each, either or neither are used as adjectives; they are followed by nouns of singular number: 1. Each student has been given his or her own email address. 2. Neither accusation is true. BUT Neither of accusations is true.3. Either road will lead to post office.*****

Pronouns: Types
(VIII) Reflexive Pronouns: (You can use a reflexive pronoun ("myself," "yourself," "herself," "himself," "itself," "ourselves," "yourselves," and "themselves) to refer back to the subject of the clause or sentence. Diabetics give themselves insulin shots several times a day. The Dean often does the photocopying herself so that the secretaries can do more important work. (IX) Intensive Pronouns: An intensive pronoun is a pronoun used to emphasise its antecedent. Intensive pronouns are identical in form to reflexive pronouns. I myself believe that aliens should abduct my sister. The Prime Minister himself said that he would lower taxes. They themselves promised to come to the party even though they had a final exam at the same time.

Pronouns: Usages
A. B. Personal Pronouns: We use the subject form when the pronoun is the subject.( e.g. I couldnt tell you. Well, hes quite tall. **We sometimes use a subject pronoun as complement. (e.g. (i) The young man looked rather like Matthew, but it wasnt he . (ii) Sarah knows all about it. It was she who told me. ** In the following sentences, standard grammar requires the subjective case because the pronoun would be the subject if a verb were supplied. (vi) We scored as many goal as they. (vii) Can you sing as well as they? (viii) We are not so rich as they. (ix) It must be he who is made of india-rubber, not I.

C.

Pronouns: Usages
Personal Pronouns: D. The personal pronoun following but (meaning except) or than should be in the case it would have if a verb were supplied. (i) No one understands it, no one but I. (ii) None but he knew the truth. (iii) None but they deserved to win. (iii) BUT (ii) Everyone was there but him. (him is the object to the preposition but) (iv) Our uneducated brethren who have, under God no defence but us (object of who have). (vi) All but him knew the truth. E. The pronoun whom is always used after than, rather than who( e.g. Professor Smith, than whom there is scarcely better qualified to judge, believes it to be pre-roman. ***

Pronouns: Usages
Relative Pronouns:
A. a) WHO,THAT and WHICH WHO and THAT are used when referring to persons, who being used when the individual person or the individuality of a group is implied and that when a class, type or species is implied. Compare: (1.He is the boy who understands Punjabi. 2. She is the kind of student that we want. After an adjective in superlative degree that is used.(1. He is the wisest man that ever lived.2. This is the best that we can do. After two antecedents, one of which is the name of a person, and the other the name of some animal or thing, use that in place of who or which. (e.g. 1.The lady and her pet dog that came yesterday have come again today.)

b) c)

Pronouns: Usages
Relative Pronouns:
A. i) WHO,THAT and WHICH Who and Which are ALSO used in non-restrictive clauses which merely give some additional information about the antecedent. 1.(The manager sent for the clerk, who came at once (just an additional information about the clerk.). 2.The Hyderabad House in New Delhi, which is now being used by the Ministry of External Affairs (this is an additional information), is to be sold.3. Our Annual Report, which is long (just an additional information about the report), is now ready for distribution. Note: In the following examples who and which restrict/limit/define the antecedent.1. Mangoes which are over-ripe should be thrown away. 2. This is a case which calls for careful investigation.3 A boy who does not play games will never be healthy.

j)

Pronouns: Usages
Some more facts on Pronouns: 1. If three pronouns (if different persons) are used together in the same sentence they are arranged in the following order: 2nd Person + 3rd person + 1st person e.g. You, he and I must help that poor man. 2. Except when three pronouns (of different persons) are used together in the same sentence and the sentence confesses a guilt or flaw then they should be in the following order: a) We, you and they were absent. b) I, you and he are to blame. 3. When two singular nouns joined by and refer to the same person, or thing, the pronoun used should be singular. e.g. The manager and owner of the firm expressed his views on the demands of the workers.

Articles
Cases where Articles should not be used
a) Before Proper nouns:1. Tagore was a truly great poet. 2.Everest is the highest peak in the world. b) Before Abstract Nouns:1. Wisdom is better than riches.2. Commonsense is a great. c) Before Material nouns:1. Iron and Steel are controlled commodities.2.This pillar is made of reinforced. d) Before a Common Noun in its widest sense:1. Man is mortal. 2. Animals have an underdeveloped.

Articles
Cases where Articles should not be used
In certain Verbal Phrases 1.He sent word that he was going to Bombay.2.Dont lose patience so easily . In certain Prepositional phrases (Preposition +Noun):1. The ship was riding at anchor. 2.We can travel by road, by rail, by air.

Articles
Cases where Articles should not be used
Before titles used in apposition to a Proper Noun, or as the complement of a Subject: 1. Solomon, son of David (in apposition to Solomon), was the wisest of Monarchs.2.Philip, King of Spain, planned to invade England.3.Zakir Hussain was elected President of India. (Complement of a Subject) . Before languages; as 1.We are studying English.2. They speak Chinese at home. Before nouns like school, college, university, church, bed, hospital, prison, when these paces are visited or used for their primary purpose; as,1. I learnt French at school. 2. We go to church on Sundays. Note- The is used with these words when we refer to them as a definite place, building or object rather than to a normal activity that goes on there; as,1. The school is very near my home. 2. I met him at the church.

Articles
Cases where Articles should not be used
Before names of relations, like father, mother, aunt, uncle, and also cook and nurse, meaning our cook, our nurse, as,1. Father has returned.2. Aunt wants to see her. 3. Cook has given notice. Before predicative nouns denoting a unique position, i.e. that is normally held at one time by one person only; as,1. He was elected chairman (the Predicative noun) of the Board. 2. Mr. Banerji became Principal (the Predicative noun) of the college.

END

OF
SESSION I