CH 12

Objectoriented Design
Designing systems using self
contained objects and object
classes
©Ian Sommerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 12 Slide 1

Objectives
● To explain how a software design may be
represented as a set of interacting objects that
manage their own state and operations
● To describe the activities in the objectoriented
design process
● To introduce various models that describe an
objectoriented design
● To show how the UML may be used to represent
these models

Topics covered
● Objects and object classes
● An objectoriented design process
● Design evolution

Characteristics of OOD
● Objects are abstractions of realworld or system
entities and manage themselves
● Objects are independent and encapsulate state and
representation information.
● System functionality is expressed in terms of
object services
● Shared data areas are eliminated. Objects
communicate by message passing
● Objects may be distributed and may execute
sequentially or in parallel
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Advantages of OOD
● Easier maintenance. Objects may be
understood as standalone entities
● Objects are appropriate reusable components
● For some systems, there may be an obvious
mapping from real world entities to system
objects

Objectoriented development
● Objectoriented analysis, design and
programming are related but distinct
● OOA is concerned with developing an object
model of the application domain
● OOD is concerned with developing an object
oriented system model to implement requirements
● OOP is concerned with realising an OOD using
an OO programming language such as Java or
C++

Objects and object classes
● Objects are entities in a software system which
represent instances of realworld and system
entities
● Object classes are templates for objects. They
may be used to create objects
● Object classes may inherit attributes and services
from other object classes

Objects
An object is an entity which has a state and a defined set of
operations which operate on that state. The state is represented as a
set of object attributes. The operations associated with the object
provide services to other objects (clients) which request these
services when some computation is required.
Objects are created according to some object class definition. An
object class definition serves as a template for objects. It includes
declarations of all the attributes and services which should be
associated with an object of that class.

The Unified Modeling Language
● Several different notations for describing object
oriented designs were proposed in the 1980s and
1990s
● The Unified Modeling Language is an integration
of these notations
● It describes notations for a number of different
models that may be produced during OO analysis
and design
● It is now a de facto standard for OO modelling

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©Ian Sommerville 2000
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Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 12 Slide 11
Object communication
● Conceptually, objects communicate by
message passing.
● Messages
• The name of the service requested by the calling object.
• Copies of the information required to execute the service
and the name of a holder for the result of the service.
● In practice, messages are often implemented
by procedure calls
• Name = procedure name.
• Information = parameter list.

Message examples
// Call a method associated with a buffer
// object that returns the next value
// in the buffer
v = circularBuffer.Get () ;
// Call the method associated with a

// thermostat object that sets the
// temperature to be maintained
thermostat.setTemp (20) ;

Generalisation and inheritance
● Objects are members of classes which define
attribute types and operations
● Classes may be arranged in a class hierarchy
where one class (a superclass) is a generalisation
of one or more other classes (subclasses)
● A subclass inherits the attributes and
operations from its super class and may add
new methods or attributes of its own
● Generalisation in the UML is implemented as
inheritance in OO programming languages
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Advantages of inheritance
● It is an abstraction mechanism which may be used
to classify entities
● It is a reuse mechanism at both the design and the
programming level
● The inheritance graph is a source of
organisational knowledge about domains and
systems

Problems with inheritance
● Object classes are not selfcontained. they cannot
be understood without reference to their super
classes
● Designers have a tendency to reuse the
inheritance graph created during analysis. Can
lead to significant inefficiency
● The inheritance graphs of analysis, design and
implementation have different functions and
should be separately maintained

Inheritance and OOD
● There are differing views as to whether
inheritance is fundamental to OOD.
• View 1. Identifying the inheritance hierarchy or network is a
fundamental part of objectoriented design. Obviously this can
only be implemented using an OOPL.
• View 2. Inheritance is a useful implementation concept which
allows reuse of attribute and operation definitions. Identifying
an inheritance hierarchy at the design stage places unnecessary
restrictions on the implementation
● Inheritance introduces complexity and this is
undesirable, especially in critical systems

UML associations
● Objects and object classes participate in
relationships with other objects and object classes
● In the UML, a generalised relationship is
indicated by an association
● Associations may be annotated with information
that describes the association
● Associations are general but may indicate that an
attribute of an object is an associated object or
that a method relies on an associated object

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Concurrent objects
● The nature of objects as selfcontained entities
make them suitable for concurrent
implementation
● The messagepassing model of object
communication can be implemented directly if
objects are running on separate processors in a
distributed system

Servers and active objects
● Servers.
• The object is implemented as a parallel process (server)
with entry points corresponding to object operations. If no
calls are made to it, the object suspends itself and waits for
further requests for service
● Active objects
• Objects are implemented as parallel processes and the
internal object state may be changed by the object itself and
not simply by external calls

Active transponder object
● Active objects may have their attributes modified
by operations but may also update them
autonomously using internal operations
● Transponder object broadcasts an aircraft’s
position. The position may be updated using a
satellite positioning system. The object
periodically update the position by triangulation
from satellites

An active transponder object
class Transponder extends Thread {
Position currentPosition ;
Coords c1, c2 ;
Satellite sat1, sat2 ;
Navigator theNavigator ;
public Position givePosition ()
{
return currentPosition ;
}
public void run ()
{
while (true)
{
c1 = sat1.position () ;
c2 = sat2.position () ;
currentPosition = theNavigator.compute (c1, c2) ;
}
} //Transponder

Java threads
● Threads in Java are a simple construct for
implementing concurrent objects
● Threads must include a method called run() and
this is started up by the Java runtime system
● Active objects typically include an infinite loop
so that they are always carrying out the
computation

An objectoriented design process
● Define the context and modes of use of the
system
● Design the system architecture
● Identify the principal system objects
● Develop design models
● Specify object interfaces

Weather system description
A weather data collection system is required to generate weather maps on a
regular basis using data collected from remote, unattended weather stations
and other data sources such as weather observers, balloons and satellites.
Weather stations transmit their data to the area computer in response to a
request from that machine.
The area computer validates the collected data and integrates it with the
data from different sources. The integrated data is archived and, using data
from this archive and a digitised map database a set of local weather maps
is created. Maps may be printed for distribution on a specialpurpose map
printer or may be displayed in a number of different formats.

Weather station description
A weather station is a package of software controlled instruments
which collects data, performs some data processing and transmits
this data for further processing. The instruments include air and
ground thermometers, an anemometer, a wind vane, a barometer
and a rain gauge. Data is collected every five minutes.
When a command is issued to transmit the weather data, the
weather station processes and summarises the collected data. The
summarised data is transmitted to the mapping computer when a
request is received.

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System context and models of use
● Develop an understanding of the relationships
between the software being designed and its
external environment
● System context
• A static model that describes other systems in the environment.
Use a subsystem model to show other systems. Following slide
shows the systems around the weather station system.
● Model of system use
• A dynamic model that describes how the system interacts with
its environment. Use usecases to show interactions

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Usecases for the weather station

Usecase description
System Weather station
Usecase Report
Actors Weather data collection system, Weather station
Data The weather station sends a summary of the weather data that has been
collected from the instruments in the collection period to the weather data
collection system. The data sent are the maximum minimum and average
ground and air temperatures, the maximum, minimum and average air
pressures, the maximum, minimum and average wind speeds, the total
rainfall and the wind direction as sampled at 5 minute intervals.
Stimulus The weather data collection system establishes a modem link with the
weather station and requests transmission of the data.
Response The summarised data is sent to the weather data collection system
Comments Weather stations are usually asked to report once per hour but this
frequency may differ from one station to the other and may be modified in
future.

Architectural design
● Once interactions between the system and its
environment have been understood, you use this
information for designing the system architecture
● Layered architecture is appropriate for the
weather station
• Interface layer for handling communications
• Data collection layer for managing instruments
• Instruments layer for collecting data
● There should be no more than 7 entities in an
architectural model

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Object identification
● Identifying objects (or object classes) is the most
difficult part of
object oriented design
● There is no 'magic formula' for object
identification. It relies on the skill, experience
and domain knowledge of system designers
● Object identification is an iterative process. You
are unlikely to get it right first time

Approaches to identification
● Use a grammatical approach based on a natural
language description of the system (used in Hood
method)
● Base the identification on tangible things in the
application domain
● Use a behavioural approach and identify objects
based on what participates in what behaviour
● Use a scenariobased analysis. The objects,
attributes and methods in each scenario are
identified
Weather station object classes
● Ground thermometer, Anemometer, Barometer
• Application domain objects that are ‘hardware’ objects related
to the instruments in the system
● Weather station
• The basic interface of the weather station to its environment. It
therefore reflects the interactions identified in the usecase
model
● Weather data
• Encapsulates the summarised data from the instruments

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Further objects and object refinement
● Use domain knowledge to identify more objects
and operations
• Weather stations should have a unique identifier
• Weather stations are remotely situated so instrument failures
have to be reported automatically. Therefore attributes and
operations for selfchecking are required
● Active or passive objects
• In this case, objects are passive and collect data on request
rather than autonomously. This introduces flexibility at the
expense of controller processing time

Design models
● Design models show the objects and object
classes and relationships between these entities
● Static models describe the static structure of the
system in terms of object classes and
relationships
● Dynamic models describe the dynamic
interactions between objects.

Examples of design models
● Subsystem models that show logical groupings
of objects into coherent subsystems
● Sequence models that show the sequence of
object interactions
● State machine models that show how individual
objects change their state in response to events
● Other models include usecase models,
aggregation models, generalisation models,etc.

Subsystem models
● Shows how the design is organised into logically
related groups of objects
● In the UML, these are shown using packages an
encapsulation construct. This is a logical model.
The actual organisation of objects in the system
may be different.

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● Sequence models show the sequence of object
interactions that take place
• Objects are arranged horizontally across the top
• Time is represented vertically so models are read top to bottom
• Interactions are represented by labelled arrows, Different styles
of arrow represent different types of interaction
• A thin rectangle in an object lifeline represents the time when
the object is the controlling object in the system

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Statecharts
● Show how objects respond to different service
requests and the state transitions triggered by
these requests
• If object state is Shutdown then it responds to a Startup()
message
• In the waiting state the object is waiting for further messages
• If reportWeather () then system moves to summarising state
• If calibrate () the system moves to a calibrating state
• A collecting state is entered when a clock signal is received

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Object interface specification
● Object interfaces have to be specified so that the
objects and other components can be designed in
parallel
● Designers should avoid designing the interface
representation but should hide this in the object
itself
● Objects may have several interfaces which are
viewpoints on the methods provided
● The UML uses class diagrams for interface
specification but Java may also be used
Weather station interface
interface WeatherStation {
public void WeatherStation () ;
public void startup () ;
public void startup (Instrument i) ;
public void shutdown () ;
public void shutdown (Instrument i) ;
public void reportWeather ( ) ;
public void test () ;
public void test ( Instrument i ) ;
public void calibrate ( Instrument i) ;
public int getID () ;
} //WeatherStation

Design evolution
● Hiding information inside objects means that
changes made to an object do not affect other
objects in an unpredictable way
● Assume pollution monitoring facilities are to be
added to weather stations. These sample the
air and compute the amount of different
pollutants in the atmosphere
● Pollution readings are transmitted with weather
data

Changes required
● Add an object class called ‘Air quality’ as part of
WeatherStation
● Add an operation reportAirQuality to
WeatherStation. Modify the control software to
collect pollution readings
● Add objects representing pollution monitoring
instruments

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Key points
● OOD is an approach to design so that design
components have their own private state and
operations
● Objects should have constructor and inspection
operations. They provide services to other objects
● Objects may be implemented sequentially or
concurrently
● The Unified Modeling Language provides
different notations for defining different object
models
Key points
● A range of different models may be produced
during an objectoriented design process. These
include static and dynamic system models
● Object interfaces should be defined precisely
using e.g. a programming language like Java
● Objectoriented design simplifies system
evolution

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Object­oriented Design

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// Call the method associated with a

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©Ian Sommerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 12 Slide 50

©Ian Sommerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 12 Slide 51

©Ian Sommerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 12 Slide 52

©Ian Sommerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 12 Slide 55

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