UNIT-1

Introduction to Satellite Communications

Satellite Communication combines the missile and microwave technologies

The space era started in 1957 with the launching of the first artificial satellite (sputnik)

Satellite Communications
Satellite-based antenna(e) in stable orbit above earth. Two or more (earth) stations communicate via one or more satellites serving as relay(s) in space. Uplink: earth->satellite. Downlink: satellite->earth. Transponder: satellite electronics converting uplink signal to downlink.

Satellite Communications
Satellite Transponder is a microwave device consisting of receiver, repeater and regenerator in orbit Satellite transmission involves sending signals to satellite that receive, amplify, and transmit back to earth

Capabilities of Satellite Transmission

Point-to-point transmission
To transfer large volume of data Voice, data, etc communication Video conference

Point-to-multipoint transmission
Data communication Internet Video conference

Broadcast services such as television

Satellite Network Configurations

Advantages of Satellite Communication

LARGE CAPACITY

One satellite = 10 transponders = 10x120 Mbit/s. Total transmission capacity = 1 Gbit/s

COVERAGE

A single geostationary satellite can provide communications coverage for some 42.4% of the Earths surface, using much less power and much less infrastructure than would be required for a terrestrial system with similar coverage.
WIDEBAND SERVICE

- allows for transmission of: - TV - high bit date rate

High availability

There are very few sources of disruption to the Earth-satellite propagation path that cannot be factored into the original link budget, which means that satellite communications have a very high availability.
Good quality

Again, since the variations in the satellite path are few and well-characterized, the link budget for a particular path can be determined to guarantee a desired level of quality of service.

Satellite Services
FSS Fixed Satellite Services (VSAT networks,..) MSS Mobile Satellite Services (Inmarsat systems,...) BSS Broadcasting Satellite Services ( TV, DVB..) RDSS Radiodetermination Satellite Services (GPS)

Satellite Orbits

Satellite Orbits
GEO advantages: - the satellite appears to be fixed (immovable) when viewed from the Earth, no tracking required for earth station antennas - about. 40% of the earth`s surface is in view from the satellite disadvantages: - high attenuation level (power loss) (200dB) on the path - large signal delay (238-284ms) - polar regions (latitudes > 81 deg.) are not covered LEO advantages: - much smaller attenuation compare GEO satellites - low signal delay disadvantages: - short period satellite visibility (through earth station), many times during the day - Doppler effect - many satellites are required for establishing continuous transmission

Orbits I
Four different types of satellite orbits can be identified depending on the shape and diameter of the orbit: GEO: geostationary orbit,36000 km above earth surface LEO (Low Earth Orbit): 500 - 1500 km MEO (Medium Earth Orbit) or ICO (Intermediate Circular Orbit): ca. 6000 - 20000 km HEO (Highly Elliptical Orbit) elliptical orbits

Orbits II
GEO (Inmarsat) HEO LEO (Globalstar, Irdium) earth 1000 10000 MEO (ICO) inner and outer Van Allen belts

Van-Allen-Belts: ionized particels 2000 - 6000 km and 15000 - 30000 km above earth surface

35768 km

Geostationary satellites
Orbit 35.786 km distance to earth surface, orbit in equatorial plane (inclination 0) complete rotation exactly one day, satellite is synchronous to earth rotation fix antenna positions, no adjusting necessary satellites typically have a large footprint (up to 34% of earth surface!), therefore difficult to reuse frequencies bad elevations in areas with latitude above 60 due to fixed position above the equator high transmit power needed high latency due to long distance (ca. 275 ms) not useful for global coverage for small mobile phones and data transmission, typically used for radio and TV transmission

LEO systems
Orbit ca. 500 - 1500 km above earth surface visibility of a satellite ca. 10 - 40 minutes global radio coverage possible latency comparable with terrestrial long distance connections, ca. 5 - 10 ms smaller footprints, better frequency reuse but now handover necessary from one satellite to another many satellites necessary for global coverage more complex systems due to moving satellites Examples: Iridium (start 1998, 66 satellites) Globalstar (start 1999, 48 satellites)

MEO systems
Orbit ca. 5000 - 12000 km above earth surface comparison with LEO systems: slower moving satellites less satellites needed simpler system design for many connections no hand-over needed higher latency, ca. 70 - 80 ms higher sending power needed special antennas for small footprints needed Example: ICO (Intermediate Circular Orbit, Inmarsat) start ca. 2000

GEO vs LEO
GEO advantages: - the satellite appears to be fixed (immovable) when viewed from the Earth, no tracking required for earth station antennas - about. 40% of the earth`s surface is in view from the satellite disadvantages: - high attenuation level (power loss) (200dB) on the path - large signal delay (238-284ms) - polar regions (latitudes > 81 deg.) are not covered LEO advantages: - much smaller attenuation compare GEO satellites - low signal delay disadvantages: - short period satellite visibility (through earth station), - many times during the day - Doppler effect - many satellites are required for establishing continuous transmission

Communication Satellites

Overview of LEO/MEO systems

# satellites altitude (km) coverage min. elevation frequencies [GHz (circa)] access method ISL bit rate # channels Lifetime [years] cost estimation Iridium 66 + 6 780 global 8 1.6 MS 29.2 19.5 23.3 ISL FDMA/TDMA yes 2.4 kbit/s 4000 5-8 4.4 B$ Globalstar 48 + 4 1414 70 latitude 20 1.6 MS 2.5 MS 5.1 6.9 CDMA no 9.6 kbit/s 2700 7.5 2.9 B$ ICO 10 + 2 10390 global 20 2 MS 2.2 MS 5.2 7 FDMA/TDMA no 4.8 kbit/s 4500 12 4.5 B$ Teledesic 288 ca. 700 global 40 19 28.8 62 ISL FDMA/TDMA yes 64 Mbit/s 2/64 Mbit/s 2500 10 9 B$

Spectrum Allocation
Frequency Spectrum concepts: Frequency: Rate at which an electromagnetic wave reverts its polarity (oscillates) in cycles per second or Hertz (Hz). Wavelength: distance between wavefronts in space. Given in meters as:

= c/f
Where: c = speed of light (3x108 m/s in vacuum) f = frequency in Hertz Frequency band: range of frequencies. Bandwidth: Size or width (in Hertz) or a frequency band. Electromagnetic Spectrum: full extent of all frequencies from zero to infinity.

Radio Frequencies (RF)

RF Frequencies: Part of the electromagnetic spectrum ranging between 300 MHz and 300 GHz. Interesting properties: Efficient generation of signal power Radiates into free space Efficient reception at a different point. Differences depending on the RF frequency used: - Signal Bandwidth - Propagation effects (diffraction, noise, fading) - Antenna Sizes

Microwave Frequencies
Sub-range of the RF frequencies approximately from 1GHz to 30GHz. Main properties: Line of sight propagation (space and atmosphere). Blockage by dense media (hills, buildings, rain) Wide bandwidths compared to lower frequency bands. Compact antennas, directionality possible. Reduced efficiency of power amplification as frequency grows: Radio Frequency Power OUT Direct Current Power IN

Radio Frequency Spectrum Commonly Used Bands

Frequency Bands

Frequency allocation
Ban d U h f M il it ar y S Ban d L Ban d C B a n d - C o m m e rc ia l X B a n d - M i lita ry K u B a n d - C o m m e rc ia l K a B a n d - C o m m e rc ia l K a B a n d - M ilita ry Q / V G e o s ta t io n a ry Q / V N o n -g e o s ta t io na ry W Ban d D o w n lin k B a n d s , G H z U p l in k B a n d s , G H z 0. 25 - 0. 2 7 (A p p ro xim a te ly 0 . 29 2 - 0. 31 2 (A p p ro xim a te ly ) )

3. 7 - 4 .2 7. 25 - 7. 7 5 11 .7 - 1 2. 2 17 .7 - 2 1. 2 20 .2 - 2 1. 2 37 .5 - 4 0. 5 37 .5 - 3 8. 5 66 .0 - 6 7. 0

5. 92 5 - 6. 42 5 7. 9 - 8 .4 14 .0 - 1 4. 5 27 .5 - 3 0. 0 43 .5 - 4 5. 5 47 .2 - 5 0. 2 48 .2 - 4 9. 2 71 .0 - 7 2. 0

Antennas

C-Band

Ku-band

Satellite Link Performance Factors

Distance between earth station antenna and satellite antenna For downlink, terrestrial distance between earth station antenna and aim point of satellite
Displayed as a satellite footprint

Atmospheric attenuation
Affected by oxygen, water, angle of elevation, and higher frequencies

Applications
Traditionally weather satellites radio and TV broadcast satellites military satellites satellites for navigation and localization (e.g., GPS) Telecommunication global telephone connections replaced by fiber optics backbone for global networks connections for communication in remote places or underdeveloped areas global mobile communication

Current GEO Satellite Applications:

Broadcasting - mainly TV at present DirecTV, PrimeStar, etc. Point to Multi-point communications VSAT, Video distribution for Cable TV Mobile Services Motient (former American Mobile Satellite), INMARSAT, etc.

System Design Considerations

Basic Principles

Signals
Signals: Carried by wires as voltage or current Transmitted through space as electromagnetic waves. Analog: Voltage or Current proportional to signal. E.g. Telephone. Digital: Generated by computers. Ex. Binary = 1 or 0 corresponding to +1V or 1V.

Current Trends in Satellite Communications

Bigger, heavier, GEO satellites with multiple roles More direct broadcast TV and Radio satellites Expansion into Ka, Q, V bands (20/30, 40/50 GHz) Massive growth in data services fueled by Internet Mobile services: May be broadcast services rather than point to point Make mobile services a successful business?

Orbital Mechanics

Part 1

Kinematics & Newtons Law

s = Distance traveled in time, t u = Initial Velocity at t = 0 v = Final Velocity at time = t a = Acceleration F = Force acting on the object

s = ut + (1/2)at2 v2 = u2 + 2at v = u + at F = ma

Newtons Second Law

FORCE ON A SATELLITE
Force = Mass Acceleration Unit of Force is a Newton A Newton is the force required to accelerate 1 kg by 1 m/s2 Underlying units of a Newton are therefore (kg) (m/s2)

ACCELERATION FORMULA
a = acceleration due to gravity = / r2 km/s2 r = radius from center of earth = universal gravitational constant G multiplied by the mass of the earth ME is Keplers constant and = 3.9861352 105 km3/s2 G = 6.672 10-11 Nm2/kg2 or 6.672 10-20 km3/kg s2 in the older units

FORCE ON A SATELLITE : 2
Inward (i.e. centripetal force)
Since Force = Mass Acceleration If the Force inwards due to gravity = FIN then FIN = m ( / r2)
= m (GME / r2)

Why do satellites stay moving and in orbit?

v (velocity) F2 F1
(Gravitational Force) (Inertial-Centrifugal Force)

Orbital Velocities and Periods

Satellite System INTELSAT ICO-Global Skybridge Iridium

Orbital Height (km) 35,786.43 10,255 1,469 780

Orbital Velocity (km/s) 3.0747 4.8954 7.1272 7.4624

Orbital Period h min s 23 56 4.091 5 55 48.4 1 55 17.8 1 40 27.0

FORCE ON A SATELLITE

Forces acting on a satellite in a stable orbit around the earth. Gravitational force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the centers of gravity of the satellite and the planet the satellite is orbiting, in this case the earth. The gravitational force inward (FIN, the centripetal force) is directed toward the center of gravity of the earth. The kinetic energy of the satellite (FOUT, the centrifugal force) is directed diametrically opposite to the gravitational force. Kinetic energy is proportional to the square of the velocity of the satellite. When these inward and outward forces are balanced, the satellite moves around the earth in a free fall trajectory: the satellites orbit.

If FOUT = FIN the object is in FREE FALL

FREE FALL???

ORBIT LIMITS

Geographical Coordinates
Earth Centric Coordinate System

The earth is at the center of the coordinate system Reference planes coincide with the equator and the polar axis

Orbital Plane Coordinates

The earth is at the center of the coordinate system but Reference is the plane of the satellites orbit

Balancing the Forces

Inward Force

F
r
3

F =

GMEmr

Equation (2.7)

G = Gravitational constant = 6.672 10-11 Nm2/kg2 ME = Mass of the earth (and GME = = Keplers constant) m = mass of satellite r = satellite orbit radius from center of earth
r= unit vector in the r direction (positive r is away from earth)

Balancing the Forces

Outward Force

d r =m dt 2
2

Equation (2.8)

Equating inward and outward forces we find

Second order differential d r r + 3 = 0 Equation (2.10) equation with six unknowns: 2

2

r d r 3 = r dt 2
dt r

Equation (2.9), or we can write

the orbital elements

THE ORBIT
We have a second order differential equation See text for a way to find a solution If we re-define our co-ordinate system into polar coordinates (see Fig.) we can re-write equation as two second order differential equations in terms of r0 and 0

Polar Coordinates
In the plane of the orbit

Polar coordinate system in the plane of the satellites orbit. The plane of the orbit coincides with the plane of the paper. The axis z0 is straight out of the paper from the center of the earth, and is normal to the plane of the satellites orbit. The satellites position is described in terms of the radius from the center of the earth r0 and the angle this radius makes with the x0 axis, o.

THE ORBIT
We have a second order differential equation If we re-define our coordinate system into polar coordinates (see Fig. 2.3) we can re-write equation (2.5) as two second order differential equations in terms of r0 and 0.

and

THE ORBIT
Solving the two differential equations leads to six constants (the orbital constants) which define the orbit, and three laws of orbits (Keplers Laws of Planetary Motion) Johaness Kepler (1571 - 1630) a German Astronomer and Scientist

KEPLERS THREE LAWS

Orbit is an ellipse with the larger body (earth) at one focus The satellite sweeps out equal arcs in equal time (NOTE: for an ellipse, this means that the orbital velocity varies around the orbit) The square of the period of revolution equals a CONSTANT the THIRD POWER of SEMIMAJOR AXIS of the ellipse

Review: Ellipse analysis

y (0,b)

P(x,y)
x

V(-a,0)

F(-c,0) (0,-b)

F(c,0)

V(a,0)

a2 = b2 + c2
Points (-c,0) and (c,0) are the foci. Points (-a,0) and (a,0) are the vertices. Line between vertices is the major axis. a is the length of the semimajor axis. Line between (0,b) and (0,-b) is the minor axis. b is the length of the semiminor axis.

Standard Equation: 2

x y2 + 2 =1 2 a b

Area of ellipse:

A = ab

KEPLER 1: Elliptical Orbits

The orbit as it appears in the orbital plane, The point O is the center of the earth and the point C is the center of the ellipse. The two centers do not coincide unless the eccentricity, e, of the ellipse is zero (i.e., the ellipse becomes a circle and a = b). The dimensions a and b are the semimajor and semiminor axes of the orbital ellipse, respectively. e = ellipses eccentricity O = center of the earth (one focus of the ellipse) C = center of the ellipse a = (Apogee + Perigee)/2

KEPLER 1: Elliptical Orbits (cont.)

Equation 2.17 in text: (describes a conic section, which is an ellipse if e < 1)

p r1 = 1 e * cos( 1) +
e = eccentricity e<1 ellipse e = 0 circle r0 = distance of a point in the orbit to the center of the earth p = geometrical constant (width of the conic section at the focus) p=a(1-e2) 0 = angle between r0 and the perigee

KEPLER 2: Equal Arc-Sweeps

Figure 2.5 Law 2 If t2 - t1 = t4 - t3

then A12 = A34 Velocity of satellite is SLOWEST at APOGEE; FASTEST at PERIGEE

Keplers Laws 1 & 2

KEPLER 3: Orbital Period

Orbital period and the Ellipse are related by

T2 = (4 2 a3) /

(Equation 2.21)

= Keplers Constant = GME

That is the square of the period of revolution is equal to a constant the cube of the semi-major axis.
IMPORTANT: Period of revolution is referenced to inertial space, i.e., to the galactic background, NOT to an observer on the surface of one of the bodies (earth).

Keplers 3rd Law: T = (4a)/

= 3.986004418 105 km/s

Numerical Example 1 The Geostationary Orbit:

Sidereal Day = 23 hrs 56 min 4.1 sec Calculate radius and height of GEO orbit:
T2 = (4 2 a3) / (eq. 2.21) Rearrange to a3 = T2 /(4 2) T = 86,164.1 sec a3 = (86,164.1) 2 x 3.986004418 x 105 /(4 2) a = 42,164.172 km = orbit radius h = orbit radius earth radius = 42,164.172 6378.14 = 35,786.03 km

Solar vs. Sidereal Day

A sidereal day is the time between consecutive crossings of any particular longitude on the earth by any star other than the sun. A solar say is the time between consecutive crossings of any particular longitude of the earth by the sun-earth axis. Solar day = EXACTLY 24 hrs Sidereal day = 23 h 56 min. 4.091 s Why the difference? By the time the Earth completes a full rotation with respect to an external point (not the sun), it has already moved its center position with respect to the sun. The extra time it takes to cross the sun-earth axis, averaged over 4 full years (because every 4 years one has 366 deays) is of about 3.93 minutes per day.

LOCATING THE SATELLITE IN ORBIT: 1

Start with Fig. 2.6 in Text o is the True Anomaly See eq. (2.22) C is the center of the orbit ellipse O is the center of the earth NOTE: Perigee and Apogee are on opposite sides of the orbit

LOCATING THE SATELLITE IN ORBIT

Need to develop a procedure that will allow the average angular velocity to be used If the orbit is not circular, the procedure is to use a Circumscribed Circle A circumscribed circle is a circle that has a radius equal to the semi-major axis length of the ellipse and also has the same center

Locate Satellite in Orbit

= Average angular velocity E = Eccentric Anomaly M = Mean Anomaly

M = arc length (in radians) that the satellite would have traversed since perigee passage if it were moving around the circumscribed circle with a mean angular velocity

ORBIT CHARACTERISTICS

p a= 2 1 e
b = a 1e

Semi-Axis Lengths of the Orbit where

p=

h C
2

See eq. (2.18) and (2.16)

2 1/ 2

and h is the magnitude of the angular momentum where

e=

See eqn. (2.19)

and e is the eccentricity of the orbit

ORBIT ECCENTRICITY
If a = semi-major axis, b = semi-minor axis, and e = eccentricity of the orbit ellipse, then

a b e= a +b
NOTE: For a circular orbit, a = b and e = 0

Time reference
tp Time of Perigee = Time of closest approach to the earth, at the same time, time the satellite is crossing the x0 axis, according to the reference used. t- tp = time elapsed since satellite last passed the perigee.

ORBIT DETERMINATION 1: Procedure:

Given the time of perigee tp, the eccentricity e and the length of the semimajor axis a: Average Angular Velocity (eqn. 2.25) M Mean Anomaly (eqn. 2.30) E Eccentric Anomaly (solve eqn. 2.30) ro Radius from orbit center (eqn. 2.27) o True Anomaly (solve eq. 2.22) x0 and y0 (using eqn. 2.23 and 2.24)