GT Jet7-1

October 17, 2008 IC Engines Lab I I T Madras 1 of 192

In last two chapters we analyzed:
Ideal and practical cycles for shaft power operation
In this chapter we will analyze: Jet propulsion cycles

What are the differences between Shaft power and Jet
Propulsion Engines?
• First difference:
• In shaft power engines power output is from turbine.
• In jet propulsion engines power output is due to
expansion of gas in a propelling nozzle; wholly in
turbojet engines or partially in turboprop engines.
• Second difference:
– Forward speed and
– Altitude

Why gas turbine is more suited for jet
propulsion ?
(ii) high power/weight ratio
(iii) high speed
Therefore it displaced the RICE.

• What is the principle of operation?
• It is based on Newton's laws of motion.
• Newton's Second Law: Rate of change
of momentum in any direction is
proportional to the force acting in that
direction.
• Newton's Third Law : For every action
there is equal and opposite reaction.

• When a fluid is to be accelerated, a force is
required to produce this acceleration in the
fluid.
• At the same time, there will be an equal and
opposite reaction force of the fluid on the
engine which is known as the thrust.
• Hence, it may be stated that the working of jet
propulsion is based on the reaction principle.
• Thus all devices that move through fluids must
follow this basic principle.

• Can any fluid be used for jet propulsion?
• Yes.
• You can use water
• You can use steam
• You can use combustion gases
• However there are certain limitations.
• Only two types of fluids are particularly
suitable.

Heated and
compressed
atmospheric air
air breathing engines.
• Chemical reactions
of fuel and oxidizer.

We will discuss air breathing engines in this
chapter.
A ir B r e a th in g E n g in e s
R e i p r o c a t in g o r G a s T u r b in e
P r o p e lle r e n g in e E n g in e s

Can we use RICE (from !) AP
AP was started with RICE only
This is due to the availability and know-how in those days
RICE used to run the propeller which displaces air rearwards
A large mass of air gets accelerated in the process
This produces a propulsive force which drives the aircraft

In early days many countries started using
aircrafts for military purposes
There were rapid developments in
reciprocating engines especially during the
two world wars
Developments came in the form of
supercharged and turbo-charged engines
Note that all these engines were gasoline
and not diesel

Reciprocating engine
• For small aircraft flying less than 500
km/h
• Because of large frontal area drops in
power with respect to altitude, high
octane fuels, difficulty in cooling and
lubrication.
• RICE lost its flavour.

• RICE has reached its plateau in its
development
• High to very high speeds are demanded.
• Long distance travel and high load
carrying capacities are expected.
• Such demands cannot be met with the
present day RICE.
• Power output more than 4 MW is
difficult to design.
• Hence for aircraft propulsion GT is better
than RICE.
• World War II was the turning
point.
• Gas turbine technologies started
occupying the front seat.
• All modern aircrafts are fitted
with gas turbines.

Gas turbine engines can be
classified into
(a) ramjet engine,
Increasing mass flow
Decreasing velocity
(b) pulse jet engine,
(c) turbojet engine,
(d) turboprop engine,
(e) turbofan engine.
The above mentioned gas turbine power
plants can be classified into two categories.
(i) pilot-less operation and
(ii) piloted operation.
(a) and (b) come under first category.
(c) ,(d) and (e) come under the second.

Ram Jet 350

• In Ramjet engine the effect of ram
compression is used.
• By ram compression a pressure ratio
as high as 8 to 10 can be obtained.
• Note that this is achieved without a
mechanical compressor.

• If you decelerate a flow from m = 3 to m = 0.3 in
combustion chamber, the pressure ratio that can
be obtained will be 30.
• Due to turbulence, friction, shock etc. you will
not be able to achieve this pressure ratio.
• This principle of ram pressure rise is used in the
ramjet engines.
• The ram pressure rise can be achieved in
diffusers.

Fig.7.1 Ramjet engine
2 3 4
Fig.7.1 Ramjet engine
Fig.7.2 Ramjet cycle on T-s diagram

Fig.7.3 Performance of a ramjet engine
• Thrust|max at sea level
• With altitude ↑ thrust ↓

• With m ↑ thrust ↑

• Ramjets have the highest thrust per unit
weight amongst air breathing engines.
• This is only next to rockets.
• Ramjet can even operate at subsonic
velocities.
• It is most efficient when operated at
velocities of 2400 - 6000 km/h and at
very high altitudes.

(i) Ramjet is very simple and does
not have any moving part.
It is very cheap to produce and
requires almost no maintenance.

(ii) Due to the fact that a turbine is not used to
drive the mechanical compressor, the
maximum temperature which can be allowed
in ramjet is very high, about 2000 0C as
compared to about 900 0C in turbojets.
This allows a greater thrust to be obtained by
burning fuel at air-fuel ratio of about 13:1,
which gives higher temperatures.

(iii) The specific fuel consumption is better
than other gas turbine power plants at
high speed and high altitudes.
(iv) Theoretically there seems to be no upper
limit to the flight speed of the ramjet.

(i) Since the compression of air is obtained
by virtue of its speed relative to the
engine, the take-off thrust is zero and it is
not possible to start a ramjet without an
external launching device.
(ii) The engine heavily relies on the diffuser
and it is very difficult to design a diffuser
which will give good pressure recovery
over a wide range of speeds.

(iii) Due to high air speed, the combustion
chamber requires flame holder to stabilize
the combustion.
(iv) At very high temperatures of about 2000
0
C dissociation of products of combustion
occurs which will reduce the efficiency of
the plant if not recovered in nozzle during
expansion.

Basic Characteristics and
Applications

• The basic characteristics of the ramjet
engine can be summarized as follows:
(i) It is a simple engine and should be
adaptable for mass production at relatively
low cost.
(ii) It is independent of fuel technology and a
wide range of liquid, and even solid fuels
can be used.

(iii) Its fuel consumption is comparatively
very large for its application in aircraft
propulsion or in missiles at low and
moderate speeds.
(iv) Its fuel consumption decreases with flight
speed and approaches reasonable values
when the flight Mach number is between 2
and 5 and therefore, it is suitable for
propelling supersonic missiles.

• Due to its high thrust at high
operational speed, it is widely used in
high-speed military aircrafts and
missiles.
• Subsonic ramjets are used in target
weapons, in conjunction with
turbojets or rockets for getting the
starting torque.

THE PULSE JET ENGINE

Fig.7.4 The pulse jet engine

• Very much similar to ramjet
engine.
• Also has a diffuser at inlet
• However it is not a continuous
flow system but an intermittent
flow system.

The pulse jet engine
Theoretical pulse jet cycle Actual pulse jet cycle on p-V

on p-V diagram diagram
• Initially compressed air is forced into the
diffuser.
• Pressure builds up in the diffuser.
• After a particular pressure is reached valve grid
opens
• Air enters the combustion chamber.
• Fuel is injected and combustion in the form of
explosion takes place.
• Further pressure rise due to combustion takes
place.
• Expansion takes place in the nozzle.
• If you analyze PJE you will recognize
• PJE has low ηth.
• Speed range is limited.
• Early design had η of only 3%.
• Flight life is between 30 to 60 minutes.

Pulse jet engine has two limitations.
(i) It is not possible to design a good diffuser
at high speeds.
(ii) The flapper valves, the only mechanical
part in the pulse jet, also have certain
natural frequency and if it coincides with
the cycle frequency resonance occurs and
the valve may remain open and no
compression will take place.

• Also, as the speed increases it is difficult for the
air to flow.
• This reduces the total compression pressure as
well as the mass flow of air which results in
inefficient combustion and lower thrust.
• The reduction in thrust and efficiency is quite
sharp as the speed increases.
• At subsonic speeds it may not operate as the
speed is not sufficient to raise the air pressure to
the required combustion pressure.

Advantages of pulse jet

(i) This is a very simple device next to ramjet
and is light in weight.
It requires very small and occasional
maintenance.
(ii) Unlike ramjet, it has static thrust because
of the compressed air starting; thus it does
not need a device for initial propulsion.
The static thrust is even more than the
cruise thrust.

(iii) It can run on almost any types of
liquid fuels without much effect on
the performance.
It can also operate on gaseous fuel
with a little modifications.
(iv) Pulsejet engine is relatively cheap.

Disadvantages of pulse jet

(i) The biggest disadvantage is very short life of
flapper valves and high rates of fuel
consumption.
The specific fuel consumption is as high as that
of ramjet.
(ii) The speed of the pulse jet is limited to a very
narrow range of about 650-800 km/h because of
the limitations in the aerodynamic design of an
efficient diffuser suitable for a wide speed range.

(iii) The operational range of the pulse jet is
also limited in altitude range.
(iv) The high degree of vibrations due to
intermittent nature of the cycle and the
buzzing noise has made it suitable for
pilotless crafts only.
(v) It has lower propulsive efficiency than
turbojet engines.

Pulse jet is highly suited for
bombers like the German V-1
and it has also been used in
some helicopters, target aircrafts
missiles etc.

THE TURBOPROP ENGINE

Turboprop

Fig.7.7 The turboprop engine

• The thermodynamic cycle of turboprop is similar
to that of a pure jet engine except that now more
energy is used in the turbine as will be seen from
the T-s diagram of Fig.7.8.
• About 80 to 90 per cent of the total energy is
used in the turbine and only about 10 to 20 per
cent is used in exhaust nozzle.
• The propeller produces its own thrust and thus
the turboprop engine is essentially a two fluid
stream engine.

Fig.7.8 T-s diagram for a turboprop engine
• The optimum power ratio for turboprop
engine can be determined as follows:
• Let the total expansion be divided into
parts such that

where
hnoz = enthalpy drop in the nozzle
hT = enthalpy drop in the turbine
tr
= transmission efficiency of propeller and gears
T
= turbine efficiency
noz
= nozzle efficiency
ma = mass flow rate in turbine
• By assigning suitable values to t
, noz
and tr
this
equation can be optimized for maximum thrust.

(i) Turboprop engines have a higher thrust
at take-off and better fuel economy.
(ii) The frontal area is less than propeller
engines so that the drag is reduced.
(iii) The turboprop can operate economically
over a wide range of speeds ranging from
low speeds where pure jet engine is
uneconomical to high speeds of about
800 km/h where the propeller engine
efficiency is low.

(iv) It is easy to maintain and has lower
vibrations and noise.
(v) The power output is not limited as in the
case of propeller engines.
(vi) The multi-shaft arrangement allows a
great flexibility of operation over a wide
range of speeds.

(i) The main disadvantage is that at high
speeds, due to shocks and flow
separation, the propeller efficiency
decreases rapidly, thereby, putting up a
maximum speed limit on the engine.
(ii) It requires a reduction gear, which
increases the cost and also consumes
certain amount of energy developed by
the turbine in addition to requiring more
space.

• The turboprop engine is widely used
in commercial and military aircraft
due to its high flexibility of operation
and good fuel economy.
• It is likely to eliminate propeller
engines from moderate power and
speed aircraft.

So far we have discussed three air
breathing engines, viz.
• ramjet
• pulsejet
• Turboprop
First two are for pilotless military
applications and the third one is for piloted
civil applications.

Apart from turboprop there is another
piloted engine which is called turbojet
engine.
Now let us see the details of such an
engine.

Inlet Fuel injector Turbine Location of afterburner
Hot gases
Compressor Combustion chamber Nozzle

COMBUSTOR
FAN AFTERBURNER
COMPRESSOR TURBINE

Fig.7.9 The turbojet engine
• This engine consists of the following components:
(i) a diffuser,
(ii) a mechanical compressor,
(iii) a combustion chamber,
(iv) a mechanical turbine and
(v) an exhaust nozzle.

• Diffuser converts KE to PE due to ram
effect.
• After this air enters the mechanical
compressor.
Mechanical compressors are of two types.
(i) Centrifugal
(ii) Axial
• Centrifugal compressors will produce a pressure ratio of 3
to 4:1 in a single stage.
• Axial compressors will produce a pressure ratio of 6:1 and
above in a multistage.

The advantages of centrifugal
compressor are
(ii) high durability,
(iii) ease of manufacture and low cost,
(iv) good operation under adverse
circumstances

• The turbojets having centrifugal
compressor have about 20 per cent
weight advantage over the axial flow
turbojets.
• Thrust per unit weight is more for the
first type while thrust per unit diameter is
more the second type.
• The axial flow turbojets have about 6 to
8 per cent less specific fuel consumption.

CC
From compressor air enters the combustion chamber.

Energy is added by means of fuel.
Continuous combustion takes place at constant pressure
The temperature is raised to the metallurgical limit of the
turbine blades.

CC
The high temperature air now enters the turbine.

It expands to provide enough power to run the
compressor and also the auxiliary components.

• After the gases leave the turbine they expand further in
the exhaust nozzle, and are ejected into the atmosphere
with a velocity greater than the flight velocity thereby
producing thrust for propulsion.
• Current turbojet engines operate with compressor
pressure ratios between 6 and 16, and with turbine inlet
temperatures of the order of 1200 K.

• The corresponding speed of the exhaust jet
when propelling an aircraft at 900 km per hour
(250 m/s) is of the order of 500 m/s.
• Like the ramjet engine, the turbojet engine is a
continuous flow engine.
• Here a compressor run by a turbine is used to
provide additional pressure rise which is not
available in a ramjet engine.
• Since this engine has a separate mechanical
compressor, it is capable of operating even
under static conditions.

• However, increase in flight velocity
improves its performance because of the
benefit of ram pressure achieved by the
diffuser.
• Because of turbine material limitations,
only a limited amount of fuel can be burnt
in the combustion chamber.
• The exhaust products downstream of the
turbine still contain a considerable amount
of excess oxygen.

• Additional thrust augmentation can be
achieved from the turbojet engine by
providing an afterburner in which
additional fuel can be burnt.
• Properly designed afterburner can greatly
increase the temperature and hence the
velocity of exhaust gases -- providing
thrust augmentation.

• Turbojet engine is eminently suited for
propelling aircraft at speeds above 800
km/h.
• As the flight speed is increased, the ram
pressure increases rapidly and at
supersonic speeds, (Mach number = 3)
the characteristics of turbojet engine tend
to merge with those of the ramjet engine.

Fig.7.10 p-V diagram
October 17, 2008 IC Engines Lab Fig.7.11

I I T Madras T-s diagram
95 of 192
• In the analysis of turbojet cycle following
assumptions are made:
(i) There is no loss of pressure in the combustion
chamber.
(ii) The specific heat is constant.
Cpa = 1.005 kJ/kg K ; Cpg = 1.147 kJ/kg K
γa = 1.4 γg = 1.33
(iii) Power developed by the turbine is just sufficient to
drive the compressor.

• At the inlet to the diffuser air enters with a
velocity equal to the forward speed of the
aircraft.
• In diffuser air velocity is decreased and
pressure is increased.
• In the ideal case the pressure will rise such
that the velocity at the exit of the diffuser
is zero.
• However, in actual practice the air will
have a velocity of about 60-90 m/s at
diffuser exit.

• If d is the efficiency of
the diffuser then the
total pressure at the end
of diffusion process is
given by:
• From the diffuser air

goes into a compressor.
Fig.7.11 T-s diagram

• If C is the compressor efficiency and p02 /p01 the
pressure ratio, we get
• The heat input per kg of air in the combustion

chamber is given by

• Since we have assumed that turbine and
compressor work are same.
• If T is the turbine efficiency and p04 / p03

is the turbine pressure ratio,

• By equating the turbine and compressor work, we
get
• From the Eq.7.3, knowing the ram compression

and the compressor pressure ratio, the required
turbine pressure ratio to produce a power equal to
that absorbed by the compressor can be obtained
and from the turbine pressure ratio the nozzle
pressure can be obtained.

• If noz
is the nozzle efficiency then,
• It is assumed that there is no loss in passing the

gas from turbine exhaust to the nozzle.
• It should be noted that in Eq.7.4, h5 is used
instead of total enthalpy h05 because the exhaust
nozzle efficiency is an indication of the
percentage of total energy converted into
velocity energy.

Therefore,
The exit velocity at the nozzle end can be

obtained by writing energy balance
equation.

• Thrust developed
• From the above, thrust specific fuel

consumption and also the thermal
efficiency can be calculated.

Performance of a Turbojet Engine

Fig.7.12 Thrust specific fuel consumption vs
compressor pressure ratio for a turbojet engine

• With the help of the above analysis it is
possible to estimate the performance of a
turbojet engine taking into account the
component efficiencies and other
parameters.
• Figure 7.12 shows the thrust specific fuel
consumption for various compressor
pressure ratios at two different Mach
numbers.

It is evident that for a given Mach
number there is only one compressor
pressure ratio which gives best fuel
economy for given values of component
efficiencies and maximum allowable
temperature.
As the pressure ratio increases with a
given maximum temperature fuel
consumption decreases to a minimum.

• After that further increase in pressure ratio will
not improve the fuel economy until maximum
temperature is not raised, since compressor
efficiency decreases with increasing pressure
ratio.
• For a given pressure ratio higher maximum
temperature will result in more thrust.
• Maximum thrust per unit mass of fuel is
achieved at a lower pressure ratio than the one
which produces minimum specific fuel
consumption at the same turbine inlet
temperature.
In addition to the above parameters,
three more variables - flight speed,
altitude (inlet temperature and
pressure), and fuel flow rate greatly
affect the performance of a jet
engine.
The turbojet is almost a constant
thrust engine.

• The specific fuel consumption based on
thrust power reduces because with
almost constant thrust, the thrust power
increases as shown in Fig.7.13.
• Therefore, the maximum speed is the
most efficient operational point for the
turbojet.

Fig.7.13 Thrust specific fuel consumption and thrust
power vs flight speed

• The static thrust of such engines is very low as
compared to propeller engine aircraft for which
cruise thrust is about 60 per cent of the take-off
thrust.
• The thrust at first decreases with increase in
speed because the velocity ci in the thrust
equation increases.
• After a minimum value, the thrust starts
increasing (see Figs.7.14 and 7.15) due to
increased ram compression at higher speeds.

Fig.7.14 Thrust vs speed for propeller driven and
turbojet engine

Fig.7.15 Effect of altitude on thrust at
maximum rpm
• As the altitude increases, the thrust
decreases due to decrease in density,
pressure and temperature of the air
(Fig.7.15).
• However, the rate of decrease of thrust is
less than the rate of decrease of density
with altitude because some loss due to
reduced density is compensated by lesser
drag.
• The thrust is maximum at sea level.
• Due to considerable reduction in drag (at
an altitude of 8000~m the drag is
reduced to less than 25 per cent of sea
level drag), the turbojet is most efficient
when flown at high altitudes and at
relatively high speeds.
• The fuel consumption on fuel mass per
km of travel increases with speed as
power output also increases with speed.

• The operational range of turbojet engine
is about 800 to 1100 km/h and the
specific fuel consumption is about 1.0 to
1.5 kg/thrust h at cruising speeds and are
still greater at lower speeds.
• The altitude limit is about 12000 m.

Advantages of Turbojet

(i) The power to weight ratio of a turbojet is
about 4 times that of a propeller system
having reciprocating engine.
(ii) It is simple, easy to maintain and requires
lower lubricating oil consumption.
Furthermore, complete absence of liquid
cooling results in reduced frontal area.

(iii) There is no limit to the power output which
can be obtained from a turbojet while the
piston engines have reached almost their
peak power and further increase will be at
the cost of complexity and greater engine
weight and frontal area of the aircraft.
(iv) The speed of a turbojet is not limited by the
propeller and it can attain higher flight
speeds than engine propeller aircrafts.

Disadvantages of Turbojet

(i) The fuel economy at low operational
speeds is extremely poor.
(ii) It has low take-off thrust and hence
poor starting characteristics.

THRUST AND THRUST
EQUATION

• Having gone through the details of
various propelling devices, their
thermodynamic cycles and performances,
it is worthwhile to discuss some of the
basic laws of thrust production and the
factors which affect the performance of
the engine.
• Let us consider the control volume of a
schematic propulsive device shown in
Fig.7.16.

Fig.7.16 General schematic diagram of a propulsive
device

• A mass mi of air enters the control volume with
a velocity ci and pressure pi and the products of
combustion of mass mj leaves the control
volume with a velocity cj and pressure pj.
• The flow is assumed to be steady and
reversible outside the control volume, the
pressure and velocity being constant over the
entire control volume except that at the exhaust
area Aj.
• Force F is the force necessary to balance the
thrust produced due to change in momentum of
the fluid as it passes through the control
volume.
• If pa is the atmospheric pressure, then
writing the momentum equation, we get
or thrust,

• We have by mass balance,
where mj, mi and mf are the mass flow

rates of exhaust gases, air, and fuel
respectively.

• If

• From Eq.7.8 it is clear that the net thrust
produced is made up two parts, viz.
momentum thrust and the pressure
thrust.
• If the exhaust velocity cj from the
control volume is subsonic, then pj pa
and also pi pa so that the pressure
thrust is quite small.
• Similar is the case for propeller engines.

• For supersonic exhaust velocity the
pressure pj may differ from pa.
• However, the pressure thrust developed

is so small as compared to the
momentum thrust that it can safely be
neglected for simple calculations and the
net thrust is given by

• The thrust, given by Eq.7.9 can be increased by
increasing the mass flow or increasing the
velocity of the exhaust jet for a given ci.
• Equation 7.9 has been derived for a simple

control volume shown in Fig.7.16, but is
equally applicable to an aircraft flying at a
forward speed ci.
• In the latter case the velocities are considered
relative to the aircraft.

• The air has a velocity ci equal to aircraft
forward speed, relative to the engine.
• Thus, we see that a large amount of thrust can
be obtained either by propelling a large mass of
air and increasing its velocity by a small
amount, or by increasing the velocity of a small
mass of air to a high value.
• In the case of aircraft power plants the fuel-air
ratio f is very small (about 0.01 to 0.02) and
hence the mass of fuel can be neglected safely
without causing much error in the performance
calculations.

• The thrust is, then, given by
the effective speed ratio, , is given by
and

• The product mi cj is called the gross thrust and
mi ci is called the inlet drag or inlet momentum.
• Equation 7.12 is also applicable to turboprop
engines.
• The thrust developed by the engine overcomes
the drag on the aircraft and in doing so it
develops power, called the thrust power which
is given by
• Note that turboprop engine is rated in kilowatts

while turbojet and ramjet are rated on the basis
of thrust developed.

SPECIFIC THRUST OF THE
TURBOJET ENGINE

• The thrust per kg of air flow is known as
specific thrust or specific impulse.
• Assuming ma is the mass flow rate at inlet, the
specific impulse, Isp, is given by
• In terms of the effective speed ratio, = ci / cj,

Eq.7.14 becomes

• The specific thrust is a criterion of the size of
engine required for producing a given total
thrust.
• It is apparent from Eq.7.15 that, to achieve a
large specific thrust, the speed ratio must be
kept small.
• Also this equation shows that if the effective jet
velocity cj is maintained constant, the specific
thrust, Isp, decreases with increase in the flight
speed ci.

• The maximum value of Isp under the above
mentioned conditions is realized when the
flight speed is zero.
• The magnitude of the specific thrust at ci = 0
is of particular significance because it is the
measure of the thrust available for take off.
• The specific static thrust, (Isp)st is given by

• Hence to develop a large specific thrust
at take off the effective jet speed should
be as large as possible.
• Let hnoz be the enthalpy drop in the
nozzle corresponding to the velocity cj,
then

EFFICIENCIES

• To evaluate the performance of a turbojet
engine the efficiencies of its components
must be known.
• Here, we shall define the various
efficiencies associated with jet
propulsion plants which in turn will
indicate the state of development of the
components of the plant.

Inlet Diffuser or Ram
Efficiency

• In all jet propulsion plants, except turboprop and
rocket engines, a diffuser is used at the inlet to
convert kinetic energy into static pressure rise.
• This compression process is essentially adiabatic
but it cannot be considered as reversible since
fluid friction is present.
• The most widely used efficiency of the inlet jet
process is based upon the pressure rise that
actually takes place; compared to the pressure
rise which would have taken place had the
process been isentropic.

By definition, this efficiency is (refer Fig.7.17)
• In an ideal diffuser, the process will be isentropic

and the final pressure will be given by
But

where ci is the forward speed of the
engine

h-s diagram for inlet diffuser

• But due to losses in friction and shock, the actual
pressure will not rise to the value given by
Eq.7.22.
• From Eq.7.18 actual pressure rise is

Efficiencies of the order of 85 to 90 percent are
obtained with well designed diffusers at subsonic
speeds.
The diffusion process is dependent more on the
type of aircraft and ducting than it is on the
engine itself.
Hence, it should not be considered as an engine
characteristic, although it affects the overall
engine cycle.

• Equation 7.18 has one serious disadvantage.
• At low flight speeds p01 – pa might actually
become negative as a result of inlet duct pressure
drop, whereas if the airplane is standing still or if
the engine is on test bed, p01 – pa is equal to zero
causing Eq.7.18 to become negatively infinite.
• A more consistent method of expressing diffuser
friction losses is in the form of a percentage
pressure drop or pressure coefficient.

• Referring to Fig.7.17, the diffuser
pressure drop coefficient is expressed by

Thermal Efficiency of the
Turbojet Engine

• Thermal efficiency of a propulsive device is an
indication of the degree of utilization of energy
in fuel in accelerating the fluid flow and is
defined as the ratio of propulsive power
furnished to exhaust nozzle to the heat supplied
and is given by

where Qi = f CV = heat supplied to the
engine per kg of air and f = mf / ma is the
fuel-air ratio and CV is the calorific value
of the fuel.
• The propulsive power, P, is given by the
net increase in the energy of the working
fluid between inlet and exit, viz. stations
0 and 5 (refer Fig.7.9).
• Hence,
• Assuming
the Eq.7.27 reduces to

• Introducing = ci/cj and substituting P in
Eq.7.26, we get
• If h02 and h03 are specific stagnation

enthalpies of the working fluid entering
and leaving the combustion system, and
comb
denotes the combustion efficiency,
then by referring Fig.7.18,
• Substituting the value of Qi in Eq.7.26 we
get
• If we assume that the mean specific heat

remains constant during process 2-3, then

Fig.7.18 h-s diagram for turbojet engine

• For constant values of altitude and
turbine inlet temperature T03, the enthalpy
added by the combustion process (h03 -
h02) is also constant.
• It is seen from the Eq.7.32 , that the
thermal efficiency th, reduces to zero
when = 1, i.e. when cj = ci.
• That conclusion is logical because when
= 1, the engine develops no thrust and
no energy is added to the fluid flowing
through ICthe
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Engines Lab 160 of 192
• On the other hand when = 0 i.e.
when ci = 0 the thermal efficiency of
the engine depends entirely on the jet
velocity cj.
• It should be noted that Eq.7.32
applies only to turbojet, ramjet and
pulse jet engines and does not apply
to propeller engines and rocket
engines.
• For propeller engines thermal efficiency is
defined as
• In the case of turboprop engine shaft power as

well as thrust power both are used for
propulsion.
• However, the shaft power is considerably larger
than the thrust power and it is usual to define
thermal efficiency on the equivalent shaft power
basis such that the thrust power due to exhaust
jet is also included.
• For calculating thrust power some suitable
velocity for the aircraft is selected.
• The propeller is a device driven by
the engine.
• Produces thrust by accelerating air.
• For turboprop engine, the thrust

power developed by the exhaust is
also considered.
Transmission Efficiency

• In turboprop engine, turbine output
cannot be directly applied to the
propeller.
• Some transmission gear is required.
• It is due to high rotational speed of the
turbine.
• Therefore, some losses do occur.
• Hence transmission efficiency come into
picture.

• Higher thermal efficiency will be
reflected in the TSFC and TPSFC
where mf is in kg/s.
• Dividing Eq.7.36 by ma, we get

• Similarly thrust power specific fuel
consumption is
• The cycle efficiency of a turbojet engine

remains relatively constant with an
increase in air speed, whereas the
propulsive efficiency increases.
Fig.7.19 Typical performance curves for a jet engine

• Specific thrust : cj,
• Inlet drag : ci.
• The net thrust depends upon the
above two parameters.
• Thus, propulsive efficiency is the
measure of the effectiveness with
which the kinetic energy imparted to
the fluid is transferred into useful
work.
TP is the useful work.
TP = F x ci
which is called the thrust power.
KE imparted to the fluid = KE|exit – KE|inlet
• Kinetic energy imparted to fluid is called
propulsive power.
• The difference between propulsive power
and thrust power is called the leaving
losses.
Now,
Kinetic energy of air at inlet,
Kinetic energy of gases at exit,

• As the turbojet engines operate at very
low fuel-air ratios, f, (i.e. very high air-
fuel ratios), f may be neglected, then
where = ci/cj.

• How to find the maximum propulsive
efficiency
2
p 
1
d p
 0, then
d
 1
i.e. c j  ci
Recall now the thrust equation
 1 
F  mc
&i   1
  
• When = 1; F = 0.
• This means that no useful work
output will be produced.
• Hence it is not possible to
maximize the ηp of JPE

• Now let us see the other performance
parameters
PT  m&a c 2j   1   
d p
 0, when   0.5
d
2 2  0.5
p    0.66
1   1  0.5
• For TJE, RJE, PJE the point of ηpmax and Fmax
are different.
• Hence, some compromise is required to get
reasonable thrust with good ηp.

∀ ηp for Turboprop engines
• TPE is a two-fluid stream engine.
• TPE analysis will not hold good.
• For each stream a separate equation
must be written.

• In the case of propeller driven engine, the
propulsive efficiency is based on the brake power
(bp) of the engine
Thrust power pT
p  
Brake power bp
• Note that large thrust per unit flow rate cannot be

obtained from small light weight propulsion
system unless the jet velocities are very large.
• To get reasonable ηp ci must be high.
• This is achieved in TJE.

Overall Efficiency
Definition :- It is the ratio of rate at which
useful propulsion work is done to the rate at
which energy is supplied to the system
useful propulsive work

p 
chemical energy supplied

Fig.7.20 Block diagram for aircraft engine
efficiencies
Parameters affecting performance
There are two
(iii)Air craft forward speed
(iv)Altitude
Let us analyze these effects

Forward speed
• First effect is Ram effect
• Ci  ram pressure 
• Ram effect increases as Ci 
• 
For a given Ci and ram ram pressure

ratio increases as the T

The second effect is w.r.t specific thrust
As Ci drag 
But ram effect compensates for this by
increasing ram pressure ratio without
doing any additional shaft work
• If there is no ram effect Isp would decrease
notably
• However with ram & higher Ci the net Isp
decreases only marginally

Effect of Altitude
• As altitude  P T 
For every 300m lapse rate of
temperature is about 2 oC

Thrust Augmentation
• Why thrust Augmentation required
• For take off and
• Combat maneuvers
.

F  m  1  f  C j  Ci 
• Two way of augmentation thrust is either
increase Cj or increase in a Cj is increased if Tmax
is increased
• There are 3 methods by which thrust
augmentation can be effected

• After burning
• Injecting refrigerants
• Bleed burning

Fig.7.21 Variation of thrust with speed

Fig.7.22 Performance chart for an
afterburner engine
The Afterburner

Bypass inlet Diffuser Flame stabilizer
Core inlet Strut Fuel manifold Combustion zone C-D nozzle
Inlet Fuel injector Turbine Location of afterburner

Hot gases
Compressor Combustion chamber Nozzle

• This method of thrust augmentation is being
widely applied for obtaining high thrust for
short duration.
• It is known that turbine blade material
considerations limit the combustion chamber
temperature rise.
• This in turn, limits the basic engine fuel- air
ratio to values of about 0.017.
• As a result, the products of combustion leaving
the turbine contain enough unutilized oxygen to
support further combustion.

• Thus if a suitable burner is installed between the
turbine and exhaust nozzle, a considerable
amount of fuel can be burned in this section to
produce temperatures entering the nozzle as
high as 2000 0C.
• This increases the gas velocity, and hence
provides a thrust increase.
• A boost of about 30 per cent can be obtained in
this manner.
• However, the fuel consumption increases
rapidly.

• For about 20 per cent thrust increase by use of
reheat the overall fuel consumption may be
increased by more than 100 per cent and this
additional mass of fuel has to be carried by the
turbojet.
• Therefore, it is used only for take-off or for high
climbing rates and for a very short duration.
• Because of the temperature rise in the
afterburner, there is a large increase in specific
volume of gases, and to keep the pressure drop
as small as possible, the tail pipe of the
afterburning area is more than that of the normal
engine.

• Furthermore, the afterburning engine must
be equipped with a variable exit area
exhaust nozzle so that by varying its area
with the afterburner operating, the normal
conditions at inlet to the afterburner will be
unaffected.
• Another way of seeing the need for an
increase of nozzle exit area is to examine
the compressor performance chart.
• Figure 7.21 shows the sketch of the typical
thrust variation with speed for an
afterburner engine.

• As shown by the thrust versus rpm plot,
the augmented thrust occurs at a
constant 100\% rpm; therefore, on the
compressor performance chart
(Fig.7.22) the augmented thrust should
lie on 100% rpm line.
• Point X represents operating point for
100% rpm operation without
afterburner.

• Now, when the afterburner is tuned on
without increasing the nozzle area, the
flow resistance felt in the compressor
will increase and the mass flow rate
will decrease along the constant rpm
line to produce operating point Y,
which is in the stalled region.
• This type of operation of course,
cannot be tolerated.

• For optimum conditions, the added flow
resistance, caused by the specific volume
increase in the afterburner, must be exactly
balanced by the decrease in flow resistance
brought about by opening the nozzle by the
proper amount.
• Under these conditions, the operating point
for afterburner operation will coincide with
point X.
• Figure 7.23 shows the thermodynamics
cycle of a turbojet engine fitted with
afterburner on h-s plane.

Fig.7.23 h-s diagram of a turbojet engine with
October 17, 2008 IC Enginesafterburner
Lab I I T Madras 206 of 192
• The process lines up to the turbine section
are the same as for a basic engine.
• The afterburner process 5--6 is ideally a
constant pressure process, but the internal
drag and momentum pressure loss produce a
total pressure drop of about 5%.
• It is apparent that more thrust can be
realized per kg of air by examining the
relative magnitude of enthalpy drops across
the normal nozzle and across the afterburner
nozzle.

Injection of Water-Alcohol
mixture

• This method of thrust augmentation is
probably the simplest one to achieve.
• mixture of water and alcohol or just water is
injected at the combustion chamber or
compressor inlet section through a series of
suitable spray nozzles to produce an
increase in thrust.
• The effect which produces the greater gain
in thrust is the cooling effect within the
compressor through water evaporation,
which brings about rise in compressor
discharge pressure.

• The rise in pressure can be seen from the
compressor h-s diagram shown in Fig.7.24.
• Process 1--2 represents normal dry
compression process which is achieved by
the turbine work hT, being delivered to the
compressor.
• Now, when the water alcohol injection
system is turned on (usually at 100% rpm)
the mixture as it evaporates within the
compressor, cools the air to produce the
compression process line 1—2”.

Fig.7.24
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CompressorI I h-s
IC Engines Lab
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T Madras 211 of 192
• The amount of work delivered by the
turbine, with or without water
injection, remains essentially the same,
therefore, points 2” and 2 must line on
the same enthalpy line.
• It is apparent that water alcohol
injection process produces a higher
compressor discharge pressure which
in turn produces an increase in thrust.

• The factors which contribute to thrust
augmentation by water-alcohol mixture
injection can be summarized such as:
• evaporative cooling which produces
higher pressure and higher mass flow;
• additional mass of injected fluid; and
• possibility of burning of alcohol.

• The first factor determines whether a
water injection system is practical on a
given engine installation.
• The first factor also provides the key to
determine where water injection
produces the higher augmentation
thrust ratios.
• Cooling will be accomplished by the
injected fluid until the air at
compressor discharge is saturated.

• Thus to get this saturation point, the
amount of cooling increases as the
thrust ratio is greater on a hot day than
on a cold day and the augmented thrust
ratio decreases with altitude and
increases the flight Mach number.
• The water injected into an axial flow
compressor tends to be centrifugally
separated from the air.

• To eliminate this problem, water
injection into the combustion chamber
has been developed.
• The principle of operation of this
method is illustrated on the
compressor-performance diagram
(Fig.7.25).

Fig.7.25 Compressor performance charts for typical
axial and centrifugal flow machines

• The N/√T0 lines for an axial flow
compressor are steeper near the surge line
than the N/√T0 lines of the centrifugal
compressor.
• Point 0 in the figures represents the normal
operating point at 100% rpm.
• At this operating conditions the gas-flow is
normally chocked, thus the only way to
increase the thrust output of the engine is to
raise the pressure upstream to turbine or
nozzle.

• Now, when the water is injected into
the combustion chamber, the flow
resistance on the compressor increases,
and since the engine rpm is fixed, the
compressor operating point shifts
upward of constant N/√T0 line until a
stabilized operating point X is reached.
• This point occurs when the pressure
required by the new flow system is
achieved.

• It is clear that if too much flow resistance is
added, compressor stall will occur,
therefore, it is necessary to maintain close
control over the rate of water injection.
• The increase in flow resistance causes the
pressure level of the engine, and
consequently the thrust, to increase, but at
the same time, the added compressor flow
resistance produces a tendency to decrease
the thrust by reducing the mass flow
through the compressor.

• However, since the pressure is higher at the
turbine and nozzle, these components will handle
more mass, the additional mass being the water
injected into the burner.
• Effectively water injection into the combustion
chamber produces a thrust increase by
• increasing the compressor pressure ratio due to
reduced compressor air flow and
• increasing the total mass flow through turbine and
exhaust nozzle.
• The magnitude of thrust increase is entirely
dependent upon compressor operating
characteristics.

Bleed Burn Cycle

• Since in a turbine excess air is also present,
a small percentage of high-pressure air from
the compressor is bled to an auxiliary
combustion chamber by by-passing the
turbine.
• In auxiliary combustion chamber the bled
air is heated by an additional fuel supply to
a higher temperature than would be
permissible in the main engine on account
of the limiting temperature at the turbine
blades.

• The hot gases are then discharged forming an
additional jet.
• A shut off valve is used to bring the engine to
normal position.
• Water is injected into main combustion chamber to
replace the mass of the extracted air, thus
maintaining the discharge of main jet at the same
level.
• This method is usually used for take-offs only due
to high rate of liquid consumption which cannot be
carried with engine during its flight.

• The augmented thrust ratio is highest for
this method among the three methods.
• Of the three methods discussed,
afterburning seems to be the only practical
method for thrust augmentation during
flight.
• The air bleed-off system gives maximum
thrust augmentation but at the expense of
large fuel consumption.
• This is used only when a large take-off
thrust is needed.

• For smaller thrust augmentation ratio
water injection is used because of
simplicity and light weight.
• Afterburner is used for medium thrust
augmentation ratio.
• Afterburner combined with water
injection can also be used.

Turbojet

Why gas turbine is more suited for
jet propulsion ?
(ii) high power/weight ratio
(iii)high speed
Therefore it displaced the RICE.


GT Jet7-1

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In this chapter we will analyze: Jet propulsion cycles

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air breathing engines.

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Increasing mass flow

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Fig.7.1 Ramjet engine

Fig.7.2 Ramjet cycle on T-s diagram

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• With altitude ↑ thrust ↓

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Theoretical pulse jet cycle Actual pulse jet cycle on p-V

• PJE has low ηth.

• Speed range is limited.

• Early design had η of only 3%.

• Flight life is between 30 to 60 minutes.

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