Introduction

A dichotomous key is a tool that allows the user to

determine the identity of items in the natural world, such as trees, wildflowers, mammals, reptiles, rocks, and fish.
"Dichotomous" means "divided into two parts".

Therefore, dichotomous keys always give two choices in each step.

Dichotomous key
Example of a dichotomous key
1 2 3 With flower. Without flower Seedless. Seed bearing Plant body do not differentiated into root, stem and leaves. Plant body differentiated into root, stem and leaves Without photosynthetic pigment. With chlorophyll or other photosynthetic pigment No vascular tissues. With vascular tissues Angiosperms Go to 2 Go to 3 Gymnosperms Go to 4 Go to 5 Algae Fungi Mosses Fern

Dichotomous key
the dichotomous key can also be expressed in a diagrammatic form
Pla nts With flo we r With o ut flo we r

Flo we ring Pla nts (Ang io sp e rm )

No n-flo we ring p la nts

Se e d le ss

Se e d -b e a ring

Pla nt b o d y no t d iffe re ntia te d into ro o t, ste m a nd le a ve s

Pla nt b o d y d iffe re ntia te d into ste m a nd le a ve s

With o ut p ho tsynthe tic p ig m e nt

With c hlo ro p hyll o r o the r p ho to synthe tic p ig m e nt

No va sc ula r tissue s

With va sc ula r tissue s

Alg a e

Fung i

Mo sse s

Fe rns

Gym no sp e rm s

dichotomous key A guide used to identify an organism based on its characteristics

Dichotomous Key

1. a. wings covered by an exoskeleton go to step 2 b. wings freely observed Go to step 3 2. a. body has a round shape .ladybug a red beetle with black spots

b. body has an elongated shape .grasshopper a green insect that hops 3. a. wings point out from the side of the body .dragonfly an insect that is 10- 15 cm long and lives in marshes b. wings point to the posterior of the body .housefly a flying insect with red eyes and an annoying buzz

Hints:
Use constant characteristics rather than variable ones. (Flowers change with the seasons) Use measurements rather than terms like "large" and "small". Make the choice a positive one - something "is" instead of "is not". If possible, start both choices of a pair with the same word.

Finish the dichotomous key with a description of the organism

5 Kingdom classification system in use through the late 1900s gave way to Woeses 3 Domains

Key Characteristics of Kingdoms and Domains

Section 18-3
Classification of Living Things DOMAIN Bacteria Archaea Archaebacteria Prokaryote Cell walls without peptidoglycan Protista Eukaryote Fungi Eukaryote Eukarya Plantae Eukaryote Cell walls of cellulose; chloroplasts Animalia Eukaryote No cell walls or chloroplasts

KINGDOM
CELL TYPE CELL STRUCTURES

Eubacteria
Prokaryote Cell walls with peptidoglycan

Cell walls of Cell walls of cellulose in some; chitin some have chloroplasts

NUMBER OF CELLS

Unicellular

Unicellular

Most unicellular; some colonial; some multicellular

Most multicellular; some unicellular

Multicellular

Multicellular

MODE OF NUTRITION EXAMPLES

Autotroph or heterotroph

Autotroph or heterotroph

Autotroph or heterotroph
Amoeba, Paramecium, slime molds, giant kelp

Heterotroph
Mushrooms, yeasts

Autotroph
Mosses, ferns, flowering plants

Heterotroph
Sponges, worms, insects, fishes, mammals

Streptococcus, Methanogens, Escherichia coli halophiles

Did King Philip Come Over For Gumbo Sunday?

Fig. 25.8

Taxon (taxa) = the named taxonomic unit(s) at any level in this taxonomic hierarchy

Panthera = genus pardus = specific epithet that refers to one species in the genus Panthera

Linnaeus convinced us to use a hierarchical classification system

Darwin provided us with the mechanism by which evolution results in descent with modification

Taxonomy naming & classifying organisms

Systematics naming & classifying organisms according to their evolutionary relationships Phylogenetics reconstructing the evolutionary relationships among organisms

Systematic Phylogenetics

Cladistics
Making and testing

hypotheses of relationship.

Modern Evolutionary Classification

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Cladistics
Grouping by common descent.
3-taxon statement:
A and B are more

closely related to each other than either is to C.

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Phylogenetic tree hypothesized genealogy traced back to the last common ancestor (i.e., the most recent) through hierarchical, dichotomous branching

Cladistics the principles that guide the production of phylogenetic trees, a.k.a., cladograms

Phylogenetic tree, phylogeny, or cladogram

Node branch point, speciation event

Synapomorphies arise at evolutionary branch points

Phylogenetic tree, phylogeny, or cladogram

Lineage or clade an entire branch

MONOPHYLETIC group(s):
Grouping of species including all descendants of a common ancestor and the common ancestor.

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Phylogenetic tree, phylogeny, or cladogram

A clade is a monophyletic group, i.e., an ancestral species and all of its descendents

Phylogenetic tree, phylogeny, or cladogram

A paraphyletic group consists of an ancestor and some of its descendents

Phylogenetic tree, phylogeny, or cladogram

A polyphyletic group lacks the common ancestor of species in the group

Fossil Record
Thanks to radiometric dating methods like

radiocarbon, uranium-lead, and potassium-argon, scientists are able to date and order both fossils and the rock around them. The fossil record allows us to develop a timeline for life on earth and see important events like the generation of oxygen, land colonization, the adaptive radiation of animals, and mass extinctions.

Fossils provided evidence of evolution

However, we almost never have a continuous record from one species to the next

Cladistic principles allow us to construct hypothesized phylogenetic trees

Homologies and Analogies

Homologous structures are

shared traits the result from common ancestry.

Analogous structures are

shared traits that result from similar environmental demands, not from common ancestry (convergent evolution).

Cladistic Analysis
Homologous characters share common ancestry

Lack of similarity among taxa results from divergence

Cladistic Analysis
Analogous characters do not share common ancestry

Similarity among taxa results from convergence

Embryology
Another way to

determine relatedness is to see how similar structures develop in different species.

Cladistic Analysis
As a general rule, the more homologous characters shared by two species, the more closely they are related

Sequences of DNA & RNA (nucleotides) and proteins (amino acids) are used as characters; as a general rule, the more recently two species shared a common ancestor, the more similar their sequences

Cladistic Analysis
Each nucleotide can be treated as a character

Character changes (mutations) from the ancestral to the derived state include:
Substitutions
AGCTCTAGG AGCTATAGG

Insertions
AGCTCTAGG AGCTGATCTAGG

Mutations

Deletions

AGCTCTAGG

AGCTCTAGG

. Similarities in DNA and RNA

Similarities at the molecular level show how closely organism are related

DNA Evidence and Bootstrapping

DNA Bootstrapping is a process of using computer analyses

of DNA sequences from different species to compare DNA similarities and develop cladograms to indicate relatedness and descent

Cladistic Analysis
All similar characters Analogies Shared Primitive Characters (ancestral)

Homologies Shared Derived Characters(u nique to a clade) The sequence of branching in a cladogram then represents the sequence in which evolutionary novelties (shared derived characters) evolved

Cladistic Analysis
Ingroup vs. Outgroup Ingroup = the group whose relationships we are trying to resolve

Fig. 25.11

Cladistic Analysis
Ingroup vs. Outgroup Outgroup = a species (or group) known to have an older most recent common ancestor with the ingroup than the ingroups most recent common ancestor

Fig. 25.11

Cladistic Analysis
Ingroup vs. Outgroup An outgroup helps identify shared ancestral and shared derived characters (unique to a clade)

Fig. 25.11

HOW TO RECOGNIZE A MONOPHYLETIC GROUP:

Shared derived Classification by

characteristics = Homology = Distinguishing character.

shared derived characters only.

primitive &/or

convergent similarities will mislead.

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Cladistics
Reading a cladogram X-axis Y-axis Line, line segment Node, branching point Line end

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Cladistics

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HYPOTHESIS of relationship

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Traditional Classification Versus Cladogram

Section 18-2

A.

Evolutionary Classification
A.

Lines of evolutionary descent

Appendages

Conical Shells Crab Barnacle Crustaceans Limpet Gastropod

Crab

Barnacle

Limpet

Molted exoskeleton Segmentation Tiny free-swimming larva

CLADOGRAM

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON VISIBLE SIMILARITIES

Traditional Classification Versus Cladogram

B. Classification Using Cladograms Section 18-2 Derived characters Characteristics that appear in recent parts of the lineage

Appendages

Conical Shells

Crustaceans

Gastropod

Crab

Barnacle

Limpet

Crab

Barnacle

Limpet

Molted exoskeleton Segmentation Tiny free-swimming larva

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON VISIBLE SIMILARITIES

CLADOGRAM

How the leopard got its spots