I.

II.
III. IV. V.

Factors related to Coal Characteristics Environmental Factors Geological Factors Factors Related to Mining Practice Time factor

I.

Factors related to Coal Characteristics:

Susceptibility to spontaneous combustion of various coal depends on their characteristics. These characteristics include: a) Rank of coal b) Presence of pyrite c) Area of coal exposure d) Moisture content e) Freshness of coal surface f) Volatile Matter content g) Petrographic composition of coal h) Ash content i) Oxygen Content of Coal

I.a. Rank of Coal Coals of different ranks have different capacities to sorb oxygen. Experience with a large number of mine fires has shown that the rank of coal is only of secondary importance in judging the liability of a coal to spontaneous combustion, although the general observation made is that lower rank coals are more easily oxidized than higher rank coals. Hence liability to spontaneous combustion reduces from Lignite to Anthracite

I.b. Presence of Pyrite

Pyrites, which frequently occurs in coal seams as very small concentrations, is one of the most important factor. It oxidizes easily in the presence of oxygen of the air and moisture at ordinary atmospheric temperatures according to the following equation: 2FeS2+ 7 O2 + 16 H20 = 2H2S04 + 2FeS04.7 H20 + Heat It results into the increase in volume and liberation of heat. The swelling contributes to disintegration of coal mass thereby increasing the surface available for oxidation. Hence the oxidation of pyrites or any oxidizable iron sulphide has a promoting effect on auto-oxidation of coal. It is observed that if pyrite concentration is >2% and is finely divided, it has prominent effect. If it is found in lumps or highly crystalline form, its contributes very little to initial heating

I.c. Area of coal exposure

The rate of oxidation of coal and, hence, the amount of heat liberated from it depends on the surface area of coal. Greater the area of surface in contact with the air, greater will be the rate of oxidation and susceptibility to spontaneous combustion. It is generally considered in the case of an average bituminous coal that the danger of spontaneous combustion is slight for sizes larger than 38 mm. Friable coals which produce a considerable amount of fines when mined are more vulnerable to spontaneous combustion.

I.d. Moisture content

Moisture inherent in coal, present in the surrounding oxidizing atmosphere, or produced from oxidation of coal in the early stages of oxidation influences the oxidation process. The changes in moisture content of the coal affect the potential of coal for spontaneous combustion.

It has been found that the rate of oxidation increases with an increase in moisture content up to a certain value. After this moisture content it may have retarding effect
Also wetting is an exothermic process and drying is an endothermic process. Highly wet coal seams, where water is continuously dripping through the seam walls, are safer than partially humid seams

I.e. Freshness of coal surface

For any given set of constant conditions, the rate of oxidation of exposed fresh surface of coal decreases continuously during the progress of the oxidation, that is, with time.

I.f. Volatile Content

Increase in volatile content of coal increases the rate of oxidation. It has been found that coal with 38% volatile matter oxidizes three times as fast as coal with 18% volatile matter. It is normally considered that coals having a volatile content of 28% and more as liable to spontaneous heating.

I.g. Petrographic Composition of Coal

It has been observed that liability of spontaneous combustion decreases in the order vitrain-claraindurain-fusain-content

I.h. Ash Content

Ash in coal generally decreases the oxidation rate which is also influenced by the mineral composition of the ash.

I.i . Oxygen Content

The oxidation rate decreases with decreasing oxygen content of coal. With coals having an oxygen content less than 2%, the oxidation rate is not large enough to cause any appreciable increase in temperature.

These include: a. Ambient Temperature b. Humidity in air c. Gas emission d. Oxygen content in contact with air e. Air flow rates

II.a. Ambient Temperature Warm air in contact with exposed surface of coal increases the oxidation rate considerably. There is less loss of heat by conduction to the atmosphere.

The temperatures of the strata increase with depth (Geo-thermal Gradient). Therefore the oxidation rate will increase with depth making deeper seams more vulnerable to spontaneous combustion.

II.b. Humidity Higher RH facilitates spontaneous heating This is due to wetting of coal thereby vapours give off latent heat of condensation to coal on absorption. It has been found that heat evolved during oxidation is 2.5 times greater for exposure in moist air than dry air

II.c. Gas emission:

High gas emissions are advantageous in reducing the oxygen content in goaves by replacement of air with methane or blackdamp.

Hence the incidences of goaf fires from spontaneous heating are reduced.

II.d. Concentration of Oxygen in Contact with Coal

At any point on a coal surface, the rate of oxidation is directly proportional to the oxygen concentration at that point. For an atmosphere devoid of oxygen, the oxidation rate is zero regardless of all other factors

II.e. Air Flow Rates

For spontaneous combustion to develop, the rate of heat generation should be more than the rate of heat dissipation. At very high airflow rates almost unlimited oxygen for the oxidation of coal is available but dissipation of the heat generated by oxidation is very efficient. A low Row rate restricts the amount of oxygen available, but does not allow the heat generated to be dissipated. A critical Row rate is one that provides sufficient oxygen for widespread oxidation but does not dissipate the heat generate RISKY FLOW RATES 0.1-0.9 m/ min. with O2>17% A good rule to be observed by mining men would be "No ventilation at all is better than a deficient ventilation".

The factors are: a. Presence of Faults b. Thickness of coal seams c. Depth of working d. Presence of Multi seams e. Presence of Dykes

III.a. Presence of Faults The presence of faults in coal seams often contributes to the development of heating in coal mines by allowing air and water to migrate into the coal seams.

Zones of weakness which usually develop in the area around the faults also aid in the development of heating.
III.b. Thickness of coal seams Thick coal seams are often considered to have more potential for spontaneous combustion because the working of these seams is invariably accompanied by high losses of coal in the goaf areas. The low thermal conductivity of coal compared with that of shale or sandstone is also a contributory factor.

III.c. Depth of working

When a coal seam at shallow depth (< 50 m) is mined, the goaf areas become connected to the surface by cracks and fissures. Air and water from the surface can gain access to the coal and increase the potential for spontaneous combustion. Higher depths >300 m, may be responsible for producing more fractures in the coal seam and thereby aggravate spontaneous combustion risks.

III.d Presence of Multi Seams when multi-seams in close proximity are worked, the cracks and fissures developed in the intervening strata increase the potential for spontaneous combustion of surrounding unmined seams (particularly the undermined seam) III.e Presence of Dykes Presence of dykes or intrusion of igneous rocks are also risky as they usually cause more fractures in the coal seam in the vicinity and also cause more coal loss during mining

Some of the most common places, where spontaneous heating occurs, are :
goaf areas and unconsolidated wastes, pack walls with a high proportion of coal the edges of goaves where high strata pressure causes crushing, roof falls and floor heave , crushed pillars regulators, doors and air crossings and constrictions in the roadways.

a. Coal left in goaf areas is very liable to spontaneous combustion as the air movement, there, is very sluggish, and any heat generated as a result of oxidation will not be removed.
b. In coal mines, coal is left in the roof and/or floor to support the weak adjoining strata or bands of inferior quality coal which are left unmined. The roof falls and floor heaves occur causing large-scale crushing of the left coal and creating conditions susceptible for heating

c. Pillars that have been standing for a long time are prone to heating, particularly when they are liable to crushing. d. Regulators, doors and air crossings are points of high air leakage due to the air moving through the fractures in the solid coal around them. The greater the pressure difference across them, the greater is the leakage. e. Constrictions of mine roadways also cause leakage of air. Changes in ventilation, either intentional or accidental, may cause excessive air leakage or may suddenly bring moist air into contact with dry coal. f. Goaf areas, where a large amount of coal is left , present optimal conditions for spontaneous heating

It is common experience that a certain time must elapse before the first signs of heating appear. The term Incubation Period' generally implies the time required for the oxidation of coal, in suitable circumstances, to cause a rise in temperature to its ignition point. It is also defined as the period between the onset of first oxidation and the time point when one can detect fires by senses or time of first sign of heating.

It depends on the characteristics of the coal, the air leakage and the heat accumulation in the environment. For low-rank coals, the time period generally varies between 3 and 6 months, but with high-rank coals the period varies between 9 and 18months. The incubation period can be extended by reducing fissuration and/or air leakage. Under adverse conditions. the period can be less than 2 weeks: especially with low-rank coals.

On recognizes three phases or stages of spontaneous combustion of coal in coal mines : 1) The incubation period 2) The indication period 3) Open fire

I.

Incubation Period
The incubation period is the period between the onset of first oxidation and the time point when one can detect by the senses. From the practical point of view, the term is, however, used in a broader sense to denote the period between the beginning of coal extraction in a district or panel and the appearance of first signs of heating. The incubation period varies widely depending on seam thickness, nature of the immediate roof, method of working, method of roof control, regularity and continuity of working, and liability of coal to spontaneous combustion. During this period, one does not detect heating during one's passage through mine workings.

II. Indication Period The end of the incubation period, that is, the beginning of the indication period is marked by "sweating" which is caused by the warmed up air from a fire area cooling on coming into contact with the cooler coal, rock and metallic surfaces and depositing moisture.
The indication period is often of very small duration lasting sometimes only a few hours. III. Open Fire: Indication period comes to an end with the appearance of "firestink" when open fire with visible active combustion breaks out. The firestink can be easily recognized by its characteristic petrolic smell. Seams seldom burn with a bright flame but they glow developing bluish-white clouds of smoke.