Lathe

Manufacturing Processes :
Theory of Metal Cutting &

Machine Tools

Lecture Notes:
Joyjeet Ghose

Senior Lecturer,
Department of Production Engineering,
Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi
MODULE
III
The
Lathe
Machine
Joyjeet Ghose, BIT, Mesra, Lecture notes on PE5005
The Lathe Machine
Engine lathes
The basic engine lathe, which is one of the most widely used
machine tools, is very versatile when used by a skilled machinist.
However, it is not particularly efficient when many identical parts
must be machined as rapidly as possible.
The standard engine lathe is not a high production machine, but it
can be readily tooled up for many one-piece or short-run jobs.
It is also possible to modify the basic machine for many higher
production applications.
The modern engine lathe provides a wide range of speeds and
feeds which allow optimum settings for almost any operation.
There have been advances in headstock design to provide greater
strength and rigidity.
This allows the use of high horse power motors so that heavy cuts
with carbide tools are practical.
To utilize this high power without losing accuracy, new lathes
incorporate heavier beds, wider hardened ways, and deeper-
sectioned carriages.
Types of Lathes
An engine lathe
- more accurate
-wider range of speeds and feed
-smaller, more precise version of engine lathe
A typical toolroom engine lathe with face plate, square turrent, follower, and steady
rest.
Toolroom Lathe
-Semi-automatic
-used for high production work.
-In this lathe the tail stock is replaced by a hexagonal turret, on the
face of which multiple tools can be fitted and fed into the work piece in
proper sequence.
-Machining of more than one surface can be done at the same time.
TURRET LATHES
-Automatic
-long pieces can be fed through headstock.
-these are similar to turret lathe operations,
- but with the cutting tools operated by a set cams
-Used mostly in screw production that is why it is most frequently called automatic
screw machines. These are sometimes called Swiss Machines
- These are of two types
-Single - spindle screw machines (1 tool cuts at each time)
- multiple -spindle screw machines (4-6 tools cuts at the same time)
AUTOMATIC BAR MACHINE ( AUTOMATIC SCREW MACHINES)
Schematic diagram of a six-spindle automatic bar machine
These types of lathe use hydraulic attachment to copy the shape of a part from a master.

Copy lathe
Copy lathe
Computer controlled
Wide variety of process capability
Multiple axis
Indexing and contouring head
On- line and off- line programming available
CNC LATHE
Retrofitting lathe
High speed lathe
All Geared engine lathe
Engine lathe
An engine lathe
A conventional engine lathe
http://www.mini-lathe.com/Mini_lathe/Introduction/introduction.htm
A mini engine lathe
Component of an standard engine lathe
http://www.mini-lathe.com/Mini_lathe/Introduction/introduction.htm
Block diagram of an standard engine lathe
The headstock is the powered end and is always at the operators left.
This contains the speed changing gears and the revolving, driving spindle,
to which any one of several types of work holders is attached. The center
of the spindle is hollow so that long bars may be put through it for
machining. .
A live centre, a face plate, collet or a chuck can be fitted to the spindle
nose to hold and drive the work.
Headstock spindle can be driven by a stepped pulley and a belt or by
transmission gears in the headstock.
Headstock

The Bed forms the base of a Lathe machine.
It provides a heavy rigid frame on which all the other basic components are
mounted. It must be rigid enough to resist deflection in any direction under
load.
The bed is made of cast iron or a steel weldment, in a box or I-beam shape,
and is supported on legs, a cabinet, or a bench.
The headstock and the tailstock are located at either end of the bed and the
carriage rests over the Lathe bed and slides over it.
Bed
The ways of the lathe are the flat or V-shaped surfaces on which the
carriage and the tailstock are moved left and right.
Each has its separate pair of ways, often one flat surface, for stability, and
one V-way for guidance in a perfectly straight line.
These ways are hardened and scraped or ground to close tolerances.
The basic accuracy of movement of the carriage depends on the ways.
Bed ways
Headstock belt drive
Back Gear arrangement
Headstock
Nose of the head stock, where various work
holding devices may be fitted
Headstock

The tailstock is located on the inner ways at the right end of the bed.
It supports the other end of the work when it is being machined between
centers, and
It holds a tool for performing operations such as drilling, reaming
The tailstock is non-rotating but on hardened ways, it can be moved, to
the left or right, to adjust to the length of the work. It can also be offset
for cutting small angle tapers.
Tailstock
The carriage can be moved left or right either by hand wheel or power
feed. This provides the motion along the Z-axis.
During this travel turning cuts are made.
Carriage consists of the following parts: (1) Saddle, (2) Cross-slide, (3)
Compound-slide or compound rest, (4) Tool post, and (5) Apron.
Carriage
Carriage
The saddle is an H-shaped casting that fits over the bed and slides along the bed
ways.
It carries the cross-slide and tool post.
Saddle
The cross slide is mounted on the carriage and can be moved in and out
(X-axis) perpendicular to the carriage motion.
This is the part that moves when facing cuts are made with power feed,
or at any time a cut must be made square with the Z-axis.
This, or the compound, is also used to set the depth of cut when turning.
The cross slide can be moved by its hand wheel or by power feed.
Cross Slide
Cross Slide
The compound rest is fitted on the top of the cross-slide, is used to support
the cutting tool.
It can be swiveled to any angle for taper turning operations and is moved
manually.
It can be moved in and out by its hand wheel for facing or for setting the
depth of cut.
It can also be rotated 360 degrees and fed by its hand wheel at any angle.
he compound does not have any power feed but it always moves
longitudinally with the cross slide and the carriage.
Compound rest
Compound Rest:
Compound Rest:
The tool post is mounted on the compound rest.
This can be any of several varieties but in its simplest form is merely a
slotted cylinder, which can be moved, left or right in the T-slot in the
compound and clamped in place.
It can also be rotated so as to present the cutter to the work at whatever
angle is best for the job.

Tool Post
Tool Post
(a) A tool post for single-point tools and (b) a quick change indexing square
turret, which can hold up to four tools.
Tool Post

The apron attached to the front of the carriage, holds most of the control
levers. These include the levers, which engage and reverse the feed
lengthwise (Z-axis) or crosswise (X-axis) and the lever which engages the
threading gears.
The apron is fastened to the saddle, houses the gears and mechanisms
required to move the carriage and cross-slide automatically.
The apron hand wheel can be turned manually to move the carriage along
the Lathe bed. This hand wheel is connected to a gear that meshes in a
rack fastened to the Lathe bed.
The automatic feed lever engages a clutch that provides the automatic feed
to the carriage
Apron
The feedrod is a long shaft that has a keyway.
The power is transmitted from the lathe spindle to the apron gears through
a feedrod via a large number of gears.
The feedrod is used to move the carriage or crossslide for turning, facing
and all other operations except thread cutting.
Feedrod

The leadscrew is powered by gears from the head stock and is used for
providing specific accurate mechanized movement to the carriage for
cutting threads on the workpiece.
The leadscrew has a definite pitch.
A splint nut is used to engage the leadscrew with the carriage.
In some lathes, the leadscrew performs the functions of feed rod and there
is no separate feed rod.
Leadscrew
Apron mechanism is used for transferring rotary motion of the feed rod
and the lead screw into feed motion of the carriage.
Both automatic longitudinal and cross-feed can be provided to the carriage
by gears and clutch engagements.
The mechanism is so designed that when the half-nut is engaged with the
lead screw, the automatic feed motion from the feedrod is disconnected.
There is an interlocking device when prevents simultaneous engagement
of the carriage with the feed shaft and leadscrew and saves the machine
from any probable damage.
This arrangement of the apron is called fool-proof mechanism.
Apron mechanism
The half nut makes the carriage to engage or disengage with the
leadscrew.
It comprises of a pair of half nuts capable of moving in or out of mesh
with the lead screw.
The half nut can be engaged with the lead screw by means of a lever
provided on the apron.
This mechanism is called half nut mechanism.
The half nut or split nut is used only for thread cutting.
The half nut or split nut mechanism
The size of a lathe is specified by two or three dimensions:
Maximum swing diameter without touching the bed (C) : The largest diameter
workpiece which will clear the bed of the lathe. The center is the headstock
spindle center.
Maximum swing diameter without touching the cross slide (D): The largest
diameter workpiece which will clear the cross slide is sometimes also specified.
Distance Between Centres (B): The longest workpiece which can be held on
centers between the headstock and the tailstock.
Length of Bed (A).
The range of speeds and feeds, and the horsepower available.
LATHE SPECIFICATIONS
Cutting tools for Lathes
In lathe work the three most common work holding methods are:
Held in a chuck
Held between centers
Chucks
A chuck is one of the most important devices for holding and rotating
workpieces in a lathe.
Workpiece of short length and large diameter or of irregular shape which
cannot be conveniently mounted between centers are held quickly and rigidly
in a chuck.
A chuck is attached to the lathe spindle by means of bolts with the back plate
or screwed on the spindle nose.
There are different kinds of chucks:
Three jaw self centering chuck:
Four jaw independent chuck:
Combination chuck: It is a combination of self centering and independent chuck.
Magnetic chuck: The workpieces are held in this chuck by means of powerful
electro- magnets.
Air or hydraulic operated chuck: The workpieces are held in this chuck by means
of fluid pressure.
Collet chuck:
Work Holding Devices
A three jaw chuck is used for gripping cylindrical workpieces when
the operations to be performed are such that the machined surface
is concentric with the work surfaces. The jaws have a series of teeth
that mesh with spiral grooves on a circular plate within the chuck.
This plate can be rotated by the key inserted in the square socket,
resulting in simultaneous radial motion of the jaws. Since the jaws
maintain an equal distance from the chuck axis, cylindrical
workpieces are automatically centered when gripped.
Three jaw self centering chuck
Three jaw self centering chuck
With the four jaw chuck, each jaw can be adjusted independently
by rotation of the radially mounted threaded screws.
Although accurate mounting of a workpiece can be time
consuming, a four-jaw chuck is often necessary for non-cylindrical
workpieces.
Four jaw independent chuck
Collets are used when smooth bar stock, or workpieces that have been
machined to a given diameter, must be held more accurately than
normally can be achieved in a regular three or four jaw chuck.
Collets are relatively thin tubular steel bushings that are split into three
longitudinal segments over about two thirds of their length.
The smooth internal surface of the split end is shaped to fit the piece of
stock that is to be held.
The external surface at the split end is a taper that fits within an internal
taper of a collet sleeve placed in the spindle hole.
When the collet is pulled inward into the spindle, by means of the draw
bar that engages threads on the inner end of the collet, the action of the
two mating tapers squeezes the collet segments together, causing them
to grip the workpiece.
A collet (a) and a collet mounting assembly (b) are shown here.
Collet chuck:
Collet chuck:
Collet chuck:
For accurate turning operations or in cases where the long work surface
is not truly cylindrical, the workpiece can be turned between centers.
Initially the workpiece has a conical center hole drilled at each end to
provide location for the lathe centers.
Before supporting the workpiece between the centers (one in the
headstock and one in the tailstock), a clamping device called a dog is
secured to the workpiece.
The dog is arranged so that the tip is inserted into a slot in the drive plate
mounted on the main spindle, ensuring that the workpiece will rotate with
the spindle.
Work holding between Centers
Lathe centers support the workpiece between the headstock and
the tailstock.
The center used in the headstock spindle is called the live center.
It rotates with the headstock spindle.
The dead center is located in the tailstock spindle. This center
usually does not rotate and must be hardened and lubricated to
withstand the wear of the revolving work.
The workpiece must have perfectly drilled and countersunk holes
to receive the centers.
The center must have a 60-degree point.

For accurate machining, cylindrical parts can be turned between centers.

Hardened dead centers are
mounted in the tailstock; they do not
rotate with the workpiece and must
be lubricated.

Hardened live centers are mounted in the
tailstock; they rotate with the workpiece and
do not need lubricatio
Carriers or lathe dogs and catch plates are used to hold workpiece when
it is held between centers.
Carriers or lathe dogs are attached to the end of the workpiece by
setscrews; catch plates are either screwed or bolted to the nose of head
stock spindle.
A projecting pin from the carriers fits into the slots provided in the catch
plate
Carriers or lathe dogs and Catch plates or Drive plates
A catch plate with live centre
Lathe accessories
A face plate consists of a circular disc bored out and thread to fit the
nose of the spindle.
This has radial, plain and T slots for holding work by bolts and clamps.
Face plates are used for holding workpieces which cannot be held
conveniently held between centers or chucks.
Face plate
A face plate
Lathe accessories
This is a cast iron plate having two faces machined to make them
absolutely at right angles to each other.
Holes and slots are provided on both faces so that it may be clamped
on the face plate and can hold the workpiece on the other face by
clamps and bolts.
Angle plates are used in conjunction with a face plate when the
holding surface of the workpiece should be kept horizontal, as for
example, in machining a flange of a pipe elbow.
When eccentric jobs are bolted on the face plate, a balance weight or
counter weight must be added.
Angle plates
Lathe accessories
A mandrel is a device for holding and rotating hollow workpiece
that has been previous drilled or bored.
The work revolves with the mandrel which is mounted between
two centers.
It is generally made of high carbon steel.
The ends are slightly smaller in diameter and flattened to provide
effective gripping surface of the lathe dog screws.
Mandrels
Lathe accessories
A steady rest consists of cast iron base, which may be made to slide on
the lathe bed ways and clamped at any desired position where support is
necessary.
This is so designed that the upper position is hinged at one end which
facilitates setting and removal of the workpiece without disturbing the
position of the steady rest.
There are three jaws on the steady rest, two on the lower base and one
on the upper frame, the jaws may be adjusted radially by rotating
individual screws to accommodate work of different diameters.
The main function of the steady rest is to provide support to a long
slender work.
For a very long work more than one steady rest may be used.
However the carriage cannot be fed to the full length of the work when
steady rest is used.
Steady rest
Lathe accessories
The steady rest supports long, small diameter stock that otherwise could
not be turned. The steady rest can also replace the tailstock to allow for
cutting tool access at the outboard end of your workpiece.
To mount the steady rest:
1. Secure to bedway from below with the locking plate.
2. A single hex bolt, along with a nut and washer, is used to hold the
steady rest in place. See Figure.
3. The bearing surfaces on the steady rest should receive periodic
lubrication while in use to prevent premature wear.

Steady rest
Lathe accessories
To adjust the Steady Rest:
1. Loosen the lock nuts.
2. Open the sliding fingers by turning the knurled screws until they fit
around the workpiece. Secure the steady rest in position.
3. Tighten the knurled screws so that the fingers are snug, but not tight
against the workpiece. Tighten the setscrews and the lock nuts.
4. Lubricate the brass points with machine oil.
Steady rest
Lathe accessories
A follower rest consists of a C like casting having two adjustable jaws
which support the work.
The rest is bolted to the back end of the carriage and moves with it.
Before setting the follower rest, the end of the workpiece is machined
slightly wider than the jaws to provide the true bearing surface.
The tool is slightly in advance position than the jaws, and the tool is fed
longitudinally be the carriage, the jaws always follow the tool giving
continuous support to the workpiece.
The follower rest prevents the job from springing away when the cut is
made and is used in finish turning operation.
Follower rest:
Lathe accessories
The follow rest is normally used with small diameter stock to prevent the
workpiece from springing under pressure from the turning tool. To
install the follow rest:
1. The follow rest is secured to the saddle with two cap screws. See
Figure .
2. The bearing surfaces on the follow rest are similar to those on the
steady rest, and should be lubricated to prevent premature wear.

Follower rest:
Lathe accessories
After deciding on the machine tool and cutting tool, the following main
cutting conditions have to be considered:
Cutting speed
Depth of cut
Feed rate
Feed, speed, and depth of cut have a direct effect on productivity, tool
life, and machine requirements. Therefore these elements must be
carefully chosen for each operation. Whether the objective is rough
cutting or finishing will have a great influence on the cutting conditions
selected.
Cutting Conditions
In belt driven lathes the cutting speed may be changed using different
pulley combinations
Cutting Conditions (Changing cutting speed)
In some lathes feed can be changed automatically using the levers in different
positions as given in the chart
Cutting Conditions (Changing feed)
Cutting Conditions (Changing feed)
When roughing, the goal is usually maximum stock removal in minimum time with minor
consideration given to tool life and surface finish.
The first is to use a heavy feed because this makes the most efficient use of power and,
with less tool contact, tends to create less chatter.
There are some exceptions where a deeper cut is more advantageous than a heavy feed,
especially where longer tool life is needed.
Increasing the depth of cut will increase tool life over an increase in feed rate. But, as
long as it is practical and chip formation is satisfactory, it is better to choose a heavy feed
rate.
Even more important, tool life is greatly reduced at high cutting speeds unless coated
carbide or other modern tool materials are used, and these also have practical speed limits.
Tool life is decreased most at high speeds, although some decrease in tool life occurs
when feed or depth of cut is increased. This stands to reason, because more material will
be removed in less time.
It becomes choice then, between longer tool life and increased stock removal. Since
productivity generally outweighs tool costs, the most practical cutting conditions are
usually those, which first, are most productive, and second, will achieve reasonable tool
life.
Roughing Cuts
When taking finishing cuts, feed rate and depth of cut are of minor
concern.
The feed rate cannot exceed that which is necessary to achieve the
required surface finish and the depth of cut will be light.
However, the rule about speed will still apply. The speeds will generally
be higher for finish cuts, but they must still be within the operating speed
of the tool material.
Tool life is of greater concern for finish cuts. It is often better to strive for
greater tool life at the expense of material removed per minute.
If tool wear can be minimized, especially on a long cut, greater accuracy
can be achieved, and matching cuts which result from tool changes, can
be avoided.
One way to minimize tool wear during finishing cuts is to use the
maximum feed rate that will still produce the required surface finish. The
less time the tool spends on the cut, the less tool wear can occur.
Another way to minimize tool wear during a long finishing cut is to
reduce the speed slightly.
Coolant, spray mist, or air flow, will also extend tool life because it
reduces the heat of the tool.
Finishing Cuts:
Turning
Turning is a metal cutting process used for the generation of
cylindrical surfaces.
Normally the workpiece is rotated on a spindle and the tool is fed
into it radially, axially, or both ways simultaneously, to give the
required surface.
The term turning, in the general sense, refers to the generation of
any cylindrical surface with a single point tool.
Turning is the most commonly used operation in Lathe. By turning
operation excess material from the work piece is removed to
produce a cylindrical or cone shaped surface.
Two of the common types of turning are: Straight turning and taper
turning.
Lathe operations
In this operation the work is held in the spindle and is rotated whole
the tool is fed past the work piece in a direction parallel to the axis of
rotation.
The surface generated is a cylindrical surface.
Straight turning
Design Considerations for Turning Operations
Parts should be designed so that can be fixtured and clamped in
the work holding devices
Dimensional accuracy and surface finish specified should be as
wide as possible
Avoid sharp corners, tapers, and major dimensional variations in
the part
Use near-net-shape forming
Cutting tools should be able to travel across workpiece without
obstruction
Standard cutting tools, inserts, and toolholders should be used
Materials should be selected for their machineability
Minimize tool overhang
Support workpiece rigidly
Use machine tools with high stiffness and high damping capacity
When tools begin to vibrate and chatter, modify one or more of the
process parameters, such as tool geometry, cutting speed, feed rate,
depth of cut, or use of cutting fluid

Chip Collection Systems
Drop them on a conveyor belt
Dragging the chips from a setting tank
Using augers with feed screws
Magnetic conveyors
Vacuum methods
Guidelines for Turning Operations
High-Speed Machining
High speed: 600 - 1,800 m/min
Very high speed: 1,800 - 1,800 m/min
Ultrahigh speed: > 18,000
Important factors
Power and stiffness of the tools
Stiffness of tool holder
Spindle design
Inertia of the machine-tool components
Fast feed drives
Level of automation
Selection of appropriate cutting tool

Ultraprecision Machining uses a single-crystal diamond, also known as
diamond turning
Hard turning
When hardness increases, machinability decreases
Uses polycrystalline cubic boron nitride, cermit, or ceramic cutting tools
Competes successfully with the grinding process
High-Speed Machining, Ultraprecision Machining, and Hard Turning
A taper may be defined as a uniform increase or decrease in
diameter of a work piece measured along its length.
In a Lathe taper turning is an operation to produce a conical surface
by gradual reduction in diameter from a cylindrical job.
Taper turning can be done by the following ways;
By a form tool.
By setting over the tailstock.
By swiveling the compound rest.
By taper turning attachment.
By compound feed.
Taper turning
D
d
l

A
B
C
Where, D = Large diameter of taper in mm.
d = small diameter of taper in mm.
l = length of taper part in mm
2 = full taper angle
= angle of taper angle or half taper angle.
The amount of taper in a workpiece is specified by ratio of the difference in diameters of the
taper to its length. This is termed as conicity and designated by letter K.
l
d D
K

=
o
o
o
tan 2
2
tan
2
tan
2
figure From
=
=
=
=
=
K
K
l
d D
l BC
d D
AB
Taper Geometry
Taper turning by a form tool
Taper turning by a form tool uses a tool which is a broad nose tool having straight
cutting edge.
The tool is set on the work piece at half taper angle, and is fed straight into the work
to generate a tapered angle.
This method is limited to turn limited length taper only.
This is due to the reason that the metal is removed by entire cutting edge, and any
increase in length of the taper will necessitate the use of a wider cutting edge.
This will require excessive cutting pressure, which may distort the work due to
vibration and spoil the work due to vibration and spoil the work surface.
Work piece
Tool
feed
Taper turning methods
Taper turning by setting over the tailstock
The principle of turning taper by this method is to shift the axis of rotation
of the workpiece, at an angle to the lathe axis, and feeding the tool
parallel to the lathe axis. The angle at which axis of rotation of the
workpiece is shifted is equal to half angle of taper. The amount of setover
is limited. This method is suitable for turning small taper on long jobs. The
main disadvantage of this method is that the live and dead centres are
not equally stressed and the wear is not uniform. Moreover, the lathe dog
being set at an angle, the angular velocity is not constant.
D
d
l

A
B
C

S
2
L l then workpiece, the of length entire the on turned is taper the if
2
conicity X work the of length entire
2
tan
tan sin
purposes, practical all for small, very is taper, of anle the , angle the If
sin
sin
: geometry From
d D
setover
setover
l
d D
L setover
L setover
L setover
AB BC
setover BC
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
o
o o
o
o
o
Taper turning by swiveling the compound rest
This method employs the principle of taper turning by rotating the workpiece on the
lathe axis and feeding the tool at an angle to the axis of rotation of the workpiece.
The tool is mounted on the compound rest, is attached to a circular base, graduated
in degrees, which may be swiveled and clamped at any desired angle.
Once the compound rest is set at the desired half taper angle, rotation of the
compound slide will cause the tool to be fed at an angle and generate the
corresponding taper.
This method is limited to turn a short but steep taper owing to limited movement of
the cross slide.
The movement of the tool in this method is controlled by hand, thus this gives low
production rate and poor surface capacity.
Taper turning by taper turning attachment
The principle of taper turning by taper
turning attachment is to guide the tool in
a straight path set at an angle to the axis
of rotation of the workpiece, while the
work is being held by a chuck or between
centres aligned to the lathe axis.
A taper turning attachment consists of a
frame or bracket which is attached to the
rear end of the lathe bed and supports a
guide bar pivoted at the centre.
The bar having graduations in degrees
may be swiveled on either side of the
zero graduation and is set at any desired
angle with the lathe axis.
When taper turning attachment is used,
the cross slide is first made free from the
lead screw by removing the binder screw.
Taper turning by taper turning attachment
The rear end of the cross slide is
tightened with the guide block by
means of bolt. When longitudinal feed
is engaged, the tool mounted on the
cross slide will follow the angular path,
as the guide block will slide on the
guide bar set at an angle to the lathe
axis.
Taper turning by this method does not
disturb the alignment of the live and
dead centre.
By this process both steep and small
taper can be made over any length of
the workpiece.
Taper turning attachment
Other related lathe operations
Related turning operations: (a) chamfering, (b) parting, (c) threading, (d) boring, (e)
drilling, (f) knurling.
Facing: Facing is an operation for generating flat surface at the ends of a work
piece. In this operation the feed given is in a direction perpendicular to the axis of
rotation.
First, clamp the part securely in a lathe chuck.
Then, install a facing tool
Bring the tool approximately into position, but slightly off of the part.
Always turn the spindle by hand before turning it on. This ensures that no parts
interfere with the rotation of the spindle.
Move the tool outside the part and adjust the saddle to take the desired depth
of cut.
Then, feed the tool across the face with the cross slide.
After facing, there is a very sharp edge on the part. Break the edge with a file.
Chamfering: It is a operation of beveling the extreme end of a work
piece. This done to remove unwanted metal projections at the ends and to
protect end of the work piece from being damaged and to have a better
look.
Knurling: Knurling is process of embossing a diamond shaped pattern on
the surface of the work piece. The purpose of knurling is to provide an
effective gripping surface on a work piece to prevent it from slipping
when operated by hand. Knurling is done with a special tool called
knurling tool. This tool consists of a set of hardened steel rollers in a
holder with teeth cut on their surface in definite pattern.

Grooving or Recessing Operations: Grooving or recessing operations is the
operation of reducing the diameter of a workpiece over a very narrow
surface. Grooving or recessing operations, sometimes also called necking
operations, are often done on workpiece shoulders to ensure the correct fit
for mating parts.
Drilling/reaming/ Boring: These are operations to accurately make holes on
a workpiece. These operations uses the tailstock of the lathe. The tool is held
on the tailstock and is fed toward the rotating work piece.

Parting: In. this operation a flat nose tool is used to cut the work piece, with feed in
the direction perpendicular to the axis of rotation. A parting tool is deeper and
narrower than a turning tool. It is designed for making narrow grooves and for cutting
off parts. When a parting tool is installed, ensure that it hangs over the tool holder
enough that the holder will clear the workpiece (but no more than that). Ensure that
the parting tool is perpendicular to the axis of rotation and that the tip is the same
height as the center of the part. A good way to do this is to hold the tool against the
face of the part. Set the height of the tool, lay it flat against the face of the part, then
lock the tool in place. When the cut is deep, the side of the part can rub against
sides of the groove, so it's especially important to apply cutting fluid. In this clip, a
part is cut off from a piece of stock.

Thread Nomenclature
Types of thread

Cutting Screw Threads
Fig : (a) Cutting screw threads on a lathe with a single-point cutting tool. (b) Cutting screw threads with a single-
point tool in several passes, normally utilized for large threads. The small arrows in the figures show the
direction of feed, and the broken lines show the position of the cutting tool as time progresses. (c) A typical
carbide insert and toolholder for cutting screw threads. (d) Cutting internal screw threads with a carbide
insert.
Thread cutting operation
1. In thread cutting operation the first step is to
remove the excess material from the workpiece to
make its diameter equal to the major diameter of
the thread to be cut.
2. The shape or form of the thread depends on the
shape of the cutting tool to be used. The tool point
must be ground so that it has the same angle as
the thread to be cut. In a metric thread the included
angle of the cutting edge should be ground exactly
60
0
.Typical angles are 60 for Vee threads, and 29
for ACME threads. A thread gauge can be used to
measure thread angles. (also called Centre Gauge
or Fish Tail Gauge).
3. The top of the nose of the tool should be set at the
same height as the centre of the workpiece.
4. The correct gear ratio is required between the
machine spindle and the lead screw. This can be
determined in the following manner:
Thread cutting calculations:
To calculate the gears required for cutting a thread of certain pitch can calculated
from the following formula:
The gear of the spindle shaft is the driver and the gear on the leadscrew is the
driven gear.
screw lead the of Pitch
cut be to screw the of Pitch
spindle the of Speed
leadscrew the of Speed
teeth Driven
teeth Driver
= =
Note: Often engine lathes are equipped with a set of gears ranging from 20 to
120 teeth in steps of 5 teeth, and one gear with 127 teeth.

To cut metric thread on English leadscrews: The cutting of metric thread on a
lathe with an English leadscrew may be carried out by introducing a translating gear
of 127 teeth.
If the leadscrew has n threads per inch to cut p mm pitch then,
127
pn 5
5
127
n
1
screw lead the of Pitch
(p) cut be to screw the of Pitch
teeth Driven
teeth Driver
=
|
.
|
\
|

=
The factor 127/5 from the fact that 25.4 mm is equal to 1 inch. So one translating gear, with
127 teeth is necessary.
5. Change gears of correct sizes are then fitted between the spindle and the
leadscrew.

When the Change gears are not fitted and when the Change gears are fitted (in this case a
compound drive is used)
To change gears in a all geared lathe:
1. Loosen the nut below the middle gear and rotate the bracket so the middle gear
moves away from gear F.
2. Loosen the cap screw at the center of the middle gear and slide it away from
gear G.
3. Gear F can be removed by loosening the cap screw in its middle. Gear G has a
setscrew in its rim. Loosen this screw and pull the gear off of the shaft.
4. Replace these two gears with the gears which will produce the desired pitch and
secure with screws provided.

6. The speed of the spindle should be at a lower value and the half nut is engaged.
7. In thread cutting there are two methods of feeding the tool into the workpiece. In
the first method the tool is feed perpendicularly into the workpiece. In the second
method the tool is feed at half the angle of thread by swiveling the compound
rest. The second method has distinct advantages over the first as it permits to
have a top rake, cuts with single cutting edge, allows chips to flow easily, and
reduces the strain on the tool. So the later method is used for roughing cuts and
the first method is used for finishing cuts.

8. After the tool has produced a helical groove upto the end of the work, the tool is
withdrawn by the use of cross slide.
9. Thread catching: The complete depth of cut of the thread cannot be attained in a
single pass. Several cuts have to be taken till the required depth of cut is
obtained. For this, the tool has to be withdrawn from the thread groove after
completing each cut and then brought back to the starting position. Therefore we
should have a suitable method so that the tool follows the previously cut thread
groove, otherwise the threads will be spoiled. The process of engaging the
thread with the same groove is called thread catching or thread chasing. The
following methods can be used for thread catching:
I. When the length of the threaded part is short, after each cut, the carriage is
brought back to its starting position by reversing the direction of rotation of lead
screw. Therefore in this case the half nut is not disengaged from the leadscrew
so the relative position is maintained.
II. When threading long jobs, the above mentioned method is not suitable, as it
requires lot of time. So after each cut the machine is stopped, the carriage is
disengaged from the leadscrew, by disengaging the half nut. It is then brought
back to the starting position by rotating the hand wheel in suitable direction. If
the leadscrew pitch is an exact multiple of the pitch to be cut than the half nut
can engaged anywhere and the tool will follow the previously cut groove. But if
not, a reference dial present on the right hand side of the apron called thread
chasing dial has to be used. A fixed zero mark is provided on the saddle
surface adjacent to the periphery of the dial. When the first cut is to be taken,
the half nut is engaged when zero mark and in subsequent cuts the half nut
should be engaged when the zero mark coincides with the same mark on the
dial.
min
N f
l l
time Machining
then mm), 3 to 2 as taken (usually mm in tool the of l overetrave of length the be l
, mm in job the of length the be l and mm/rev. in feed the be f If
rpm. in the work of Speed N
final) and initial of (Average mm in the work of Diameter D Where
m/min
1000
DN
V Speed Cutting
o
o
+
=
=
=
=
t
This is the time required for one pass. A job is completed in several passes.
f
f
f
r
f
r
f
f r
f r
d
A
P and
d
A - A
P Then,
allowance. machining Finish A
allowance maching Total A
mm. in finishing and roughing for cut of depth d & d
ly. respective passes finishing and roughing of . No P & P , Let
= =
=
=
=
=
For facing operation the diameter used for calculating is the average of the blank diameter
and the lowest diameter (zero in case of complete facing).
l (mm)
D
i

D
f

A
f

A
Machining time calculation for turning operation
CAPSTAN AND TURRET LATHE
CAPSTAN AND TURRET LATHE
The standard engine lathe is versatile, but it is not a high production
machine. When production requirements are high, more automated turning
machines must be used. The turret lathe represents the first step from the
engine lathe toward high production turning machines. The turret lathe is
similar to the engine lathe except that tool-holding turrets replace the
tailstock and the tool post-compound assembly. The skill of the worker is
built into these machines, making it possible for inexperienced operators to
reproduce identical parts. In contrast, engine lathe requires a skilled operator
and requires more time to produce parts that are dimensionally the same.
The principal characteristic of turret lathes is that the tools for consecutive
operations are set up for use in the proper sequence. Although skill is
required to set and adjust the tools properly, once they are correct, less skill
is required to operate the turret lathe.

The difference between the engine and turret lathes is that the
turret lathe is adapted to quantity production work, whereas the
engine lathe is used primarily for miscellaneous jobbing, toolroom,
or single-operation work. The features of a turret lathe that make it
a quantity production machine are:

Tools may be set up in the turret in the proper sequence for the
operation.
Each station is provided with a feed stop or feed trip so that each
cut of a tool is the same as its previous cut.
Multiple cuts can be taken from the same station at the same time,
such as two or more turning and/or boring cuts.
Combined cuts can be made; tools on the cross slide can be used
at the same time that tools on the turret are cutting.
Rigidity in holding work and tools is built into the machine to permit
multiple and combined cuts.
Turret lathes can also have attachments for taper turning, thread
chasing and duplicating, and can be made.
Advantages of Turret Lathes
Horizontal turret lathes are made in two general designs and are
known as the ram and saddle-types. The ram-type turret lathe is
shown in Figure has the turret mounted on a slide or ram which
moves back and forth on a saddle clamped to the lathe bed. The
saddle-type turret lathe shown in Figure has the turret mounted
directly on a saddle which moves back and forth with the turret.
Ram-type horizontal turret lathe has the turret mounted on a slide or ram.
Horizontal Turret Lathes
Saddle-type turret lathe has the turret mounted directly on the saddle.
Horizontal Turret Lathes
:
Differences between a Ram type or Capstan and
Saddle type or a Turret lathe
The turret of a capstan lathe is
mounted on a short slide or ram which
slides on the saddle. The saddle is
clamped on bedways after adjusting
the length of the workpiece. Thus in a
capstan lathe, the travel of the turret is
dependent upon the length of the travel
of the ram. This limits the maximum
length of the work to be machined in
one setting.

The turret of a turret lathe is mounted
on a saddle which slides directly on
the bed. This feature enables the turret
to be moved on the entire length of the
bed and can machine longer work.
:
In the case of turret lathe, the turret is
mounted on the saddle which slides
directly on the lathe bedways. This
type of construction provides utmost
rigidity to the tool support as the
entire cutting load is taken up by the
lathe bed directly. In the case of a
capstan lathe as the ram feeds into the
work, the overhanging of the ram
from the stationary saddle presents a
non-rigid construction which is
subjected to bending, deflection or
vibration under heavy cutting load..
:
On a capstan lathe the hexagonal
turret can be moved back and forth
much more rapidly without having to
move the entire saddle unit. Thus
capstan lathes are particularly handy
for small articles which require light
and fast cuts. While operating the
machine by hand, there is less fatigue
to the operator, due to lightness of
the ram, whereas in the case of turret
lathe hand feeding is a laborious
process due to the movement of the
entire saddle unit.

:
Some turret lathes are equipped with crosswise movement of the
hexagonal turret. The crosswise movement may be effected by hand or
power. This feature enables turning of large diameters, facing, contour
turning and many other operation on the lathe.
Heavier turret lathes are equipped with power chucks like air operated
chucks for holding large workpieces quickly.
In the case of a capstan lathe, the cross slide is mounted on a carriage
which rests on the bedways between head stock and the ram. The
carriages rests on both the front and rear ways on the top of the bed. Some
turret lathe are equips with side hung type carriage. The carriage of this
type does not require support from the rear bedways but slides on the top
and bottom guideways provided at the front of the lathe. This construction
enables larger diameter of work to be swung above the lathe bedways.
There is no rear tool post on this type of machine as the carriage does not
extend upto rear bedways.

The turret 1 is mounted on the spindle 5, which rests on bearing on the
turret saddle.
The index plate 2, the bevel gear 3 and the indexing ratchet 4 are keyed
to the spindle 5.
Turret indexing mechanism
The plunger 14 fitted within the housing and mounted on the saddle locks the
index plate by spring pressure 15 and prevents any rotary movement of the turret
as the tool feeds into the work.
A pin 13 fitted on the plunger 14 projects out of the housing.
An actuating cam 10 and indexing pawl 7 are attached to the lathe bed 9 at the
desired position.
Both the cam and the pawl are spring loaded.
As the turret reaches the backward position , the actuating cam 10 lifts the
plunger 14 out of the groove in the index plate due to the riding of the pin 13 on
the beveled surface of the cam 10 and thus unlocks the index plate 2.
The spring loaded pawl 7 which by this time engages with a groove on the
ratchet plate 4 causes the turret to rotate as the turret head moves backward.
When the index plate or the turret rotates through one sixth of revolution, the pin
13 and plunger 14 drops out of cam 10 and the plunger locks the index plate at
the next groove.
The turret is thus index by one sixth of revolution and again locked into the new
position automatically.
The turret holding the next tool is now fed forward and the pawl is released from
the ratchet plate by the spring pressure.
The synchronized movement of the stop rods with the indexing of the turret can
also be understood from the figure above.
The bevel pinion 6 meshes with bevel gear 3 mounted on the turret spindle.
The extension of the pinion shaft carries a plate holding six adjustable stops rods
8.
As the turret rotates through one sixth of revolution the bevel gear 3 caused the
plate to rotate.
The ratio of the teeth between the pinion and gear are so chosen that when the
tool mounted on the face of the turret is indexed to bring it to the cutting
position, the particular stop rod for controlling the longitudinal travel of the tool
is aligned with stop 12.
The setting of the stop rods 8 for limiting the feed of each operation may be
adjusted by unscrewing the lock nuts and rotating the stop rods on the plate.
Thus six stop rods may be adjusted for controlling the longitudinal travel of the
tools mounted on the six faces of the turret.

Different types of tool holders used in turret lathes
In order to perform any work on turret lathes, proper planning for
systematic operations to be carried out in advance before setting the
work on lathe. The following procedures should be adopted to plan and
execute a work.
For effective planning and control, for each turret lathe upto-date capacity
chart is an essential requirement. This chart is supplied by the
manufacturers contains every working details of the machine such as the
maximum and minimum diameter of the work that can be mounted,
maximum length of stroke of the turret and saddle, maximum length of
the cross slide movement, tools available etc.
For tooling layout, a drawing of the finished part is required.
Proper selection of tools and tool holder is to be made.
Then the finished drawing is to be superimposed on the capacity chart
and the tools to be used are drawn out in proper sequence. The length of
travel of each tool is now calculated from the chart and position of stop
decided.
Proper spindle speed, feed and depth of cut is then decided.
The work and the tools are then set on the machine according to the
planned chart.
A typical example of such chart is given below.
Tool Layout
Tool Layout
The planning for Production of a hexagonal bolt is given below:
The capacity chart is made available.
The drawing of the finished hexagonal bolt is taken into consideration.
37 mm
10 mm
16 mm
Hexagonal Bolt
The tools and equipments such as bar stop, roller steady turning tool holder,
roller steady bar ending tool holder, self opening die head, chamfering tool,
parting tool are collected.
The drawing of the work and tools are superimposed on the capacity chart to
decide the length of travel of the tool and the position of stops.

Production of a hexagonal bolt
T4
T 1
T2 T3
T 5
T6
WORK
HEX TURRET
REAR
SQUARE TURRET
FRONT
SQUARE TURRET
T1 = Bar stop, T2 = Roller steady box turning tool, T3 = Bar ending tool,
T4 = Self-opening die head, T5 = Chamfering tool and T6 = Parting tool
Proper speeds and feeds for each operation are next calculated.
Setting and machining operation are performed in the following order:
Setting of bar stops: The bar stop is placed on the first turret face. The bar stop
is set at a distance of 70 mm from the collet face. An extra length of 10 mm than
the bolt length is allowed, 4mm for parting off and 6 mm clearance of the collet
face so that the parting off tool may penetrate deep into work without interference.
Setting of the roller steady box turning tool: The roller steady box turning tool is
set on the next turret face for turning a diameter of 16 mm. The stop for turning tool
is set 20 mm from the collet face.
Setting of bar ending tool: The bar ending tool is set on the next turret face and
is brought into operation after turning the bar. The stop is adjusted in position
accordingly.
Setting of self opening die head: The self opening die head is mounted on the
next face of the turret and dies are fitted into it to cut a thread of 16 mm diameter.
The stop is adjusted in position keeping in view the pulling out length of the die for
self releasing.
Setting of chamfering tool: The chamfering tool is mounted on the four station
turret on the cross slide and the extreme longitudinal position of the saddle is
adjusted by a stop. The cross feed movement of the cross slide is also adjusted by
a stop.
Setting of parting off tool: The parting off tool is set on the rear tool post on the
cross slide and longitudinal position of the parting tool is adjusted by the stop set at
a distance of 6 mm from the turret face.

Lathe

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