It is the automatic control of an output variable by sensing the amplitude of the output parameter from the process and

comparing it to the

desired or set level and feeding an error signal back to

control an input variable.

Figure 1.1 (a) shows the manual control of a simple heat exchanger process loop and (b) automatic control of a heat exchanger process loop.

 Discrete

Batch

Continious

Figure 1.2 Block diagram of a process control loop.

Feedback loop:

It is the signal path from the output back to the input to correct for any variation between the output level from the set level.

Controlled variable : The aim of any closed-loop control is to maintain a variable at a desired value or on a desired-value curve. The variable to be controlled is known as the controlled variable. Manipulated variable: The variable which can be changed to influence the controlled variable is called the manipulated variable .

Reference variable : The reference variable is also known as the set point. It represents the desired value of the controlled variable. The reference variable can be constant or may vary with time. The instantaneous real value of the controlled variable is called the actual value

Instrument: It is the name of any of the various device types for indicating or measuring physical quantities or conditions, performance, position, direction, and the like. Sensors: It is a device that can detect physical variables, such as temperature, light intensity, or motion, and have the ability to give a measurable output that varies in relation to the amplitude of the physical variable.

Control response: Control response indicates how the controlled system reacts to changes to the input variable. Determination of the control response is one of the aims of closed-loop control technology. Controller: The controller has the task of holding the controlled variable as near as possible to the reference variable.

The controller is a device which monitors and affects the operational condition of a dynamical system.

In a process-control system the controller is not necessarily limited to one variable, but can measure and control many variables.

Measuring element:

In order to make the controlled variable accessible to the controller, it must be measured by a measuring element or primary sensing element (sensor, transducer) and converted from a physical variable to an electrical signal that can be processed by the controller as an input.

Controlled system: There are complex relationships between the manipulated variable and the controlled variable. These relationships result from the physical interdependence of the two variables. The part of the control that describes the physical processes is called the controlled system. Fig1.3 Water bath controlled system

Servomechanism: A servomechanism, or servo is an automatic device that uses error-sensing feedback to correct the performance of a mechanism. The term correctly applies only to systems where the feedback or errorcorrection signals help control mechanical position or other parameters.
A servomechanism may or may not use a servomotor.

 Servos are commonly electrical or partially

electronic in nature. Other types of servos use hydraulics, pneumatics, or magnetic principles. Operate on the principle of negative feedback.

These were first used in military fire-control and marine navigation equipment. Today these are used in automatic machine tools, satellite-tracking antennas, remote control airplanes, automatic navigation systems on boats and planes, and anticraft-gun control systems, and radiocontrolled models.

Hydraulic system:

Advantages of hydraulics: Fluid does not absorb any of the supplied energy. Capable of moving much higher loads and providing much higher forces due to the incompressibility. The hydraulic working fluid is basically incompressible, leading to a minimum of spring action. When hydraulic fluid flow is stopped, the slightest motion of the load releases the pressure on the load; there is no need to "bleed off" pressurized air to release the pressure on the load.

Advantages of pneumatics:
Simplicity of Design And Control
Reliability. Storage .

Safety.

Servo motor
Synchronous electric motor Induction motor

Electrostatic motor (capacitor motor)

Actuator:
An actuator is that which responds to the applied signal and causes motion resulting in modification of air/fluid/current flow. It is a device that causes the valve stem to move. Manually Compressed air/Pneumatic

Hydraulics Electricity

A pneumatic actuator converts energy (typically in the form of compressed air) into motion. A pneumatic valve actuator responds to an air signal by moving the valve trim into a corresponding throttling position. Control valves need actuators to operate. The operation of a control valve involves positioning its movable part (the plug, ball or vane) relative to the stationary seat of the valve.

The purpose of the valve actuator is to accurately locate the valve plug in a position dictated by the control signal. The actuator accepts a signal from the control system and, in response, moves the valve to a fully-open or fully-closed position, or a more open or a more closed position (depending on whether 'on / off' or 'continuous' control action is used).

Advantages
Diaphragm Low Cost, Mechanical fail-safe, Moderate Thrust, Small Package, Simple design ,Excellent control with /without control devices Moderate cost, Moderate Thrust, Small Package, Simple design, Excellent control with control devices Mechanical failsafe, Long stroke, High speed option, Medium stiffness, Moderate cost, Small Package, Simple design , Easily reversible, Excellent control with control devices, Mechanical fail-safe Low cost, Moderate Thrust, Small/large Package, Good control with control device, Mechanical fail-safe

Disadvantages
Slow speed, Poor Stiffness, Instability

Application
Linear valves,1/2in (12200mm)body size

Piston

Large spring comparison when used for failure

Linear valves,1/2-30in (12-760mm)body size

Rotary spring and diaphragm

Low thrust in spring cycle, Instability

Rotary valves,1-6in (25150mm)body size

Rotary Piston

Slow speed, Large spring, Compression

Rotary valves,1-24in (25600mm)body size

Principle Of Operation : A variable air pressure is applied to flexible diaphragm to oppose a spring. The combination of diaphragm and spring force acts to balance the fluid forces on the valve. Variable air pressure:-0-124KPa Actuator input pressure:- 0-207/0-414KPa

Diaphragm actuators have compressed air applied to a flexible membrane called the diaphragm. Diaphragm actuators are single acting, in that air is only supplied to one side of the diaphragm, and they can be either direct acting (spring-to-retract) or reverse acting (spring-to-extend).

Direct acting (spring-to-retract) The direct acting actuator is designed with the spring below the diaphragm, having air supplied to the space above the diaphragm. The result, with increasing air pressure, is spindle movement in the opposite direction to the reverse acting actuator. Reverse acting (spring-to-extend) The operating force is derived from compressed air pressure, which is applied to a flexible diaphragm. The actuator is designed so that the force resulting from the air pressure, multiplied by the area of the diaphragm, overcomes the force exerted (in the opposite direction) by the spring(s).

It is based on the concept of pressure as force per unit area. Net force applied on the diaphragm is given by:-

F A( p1 p2 )

Where p1 p2=pressure difference(Pa) A= diaphragm area( m 2 ) F= force(N)

Fig:1

Fig:2

Pressure and Force are linearly related. Spring Compression is linearly related to Force. Shaft position is linearly related to applied control pressure.

where X = shaft travel(m) p = applied gauge pressure (Pa) = diaphragm area( m 2 ) A k = spring constant (N/m)

A X p k

A reverse-acting Diaphragm Actuator

e.g.:-Force 400N must be applied to open a valve.

Find the diaphragm area if a control gauge pressure of 70 kPa ( 10 psi ) must provide this force.

These are generally used where the stroke of a diaphragm actuator would be too short or the thrust is too small. The compressed air is applied to a solid piston contained within a solid cylinder. These actuators can withstand higher input pressures and can offer smaller cylinder volumes.

Single Acting:
Uses fixed air pressure (Cushion). Positioner senses the actuator motion and causes the valve to move accordingly. It cannot be used as a proportionating travel device without the positioner.

Double Acting:
Uses positioner with a built-in reversing relay and do not uses cushion regulator. Thus the positioner has 2 air pressure outputs, one connected above the piston and the other below.

Single Acting Type

Positioner senses the actuator motion and causes the valve to move accordingly. A valve positioner relates the input signal and the valve position, and will provide any output pressure to the actuator to satisfy this relationship, according to the requirements of the valve, and within the limitations of the maximum supply pressure.

The difference is in the outputs; one pressure increases and the other decreases. Higher pressure can be used for motive power so as to provide better stiffness and resolution. It also provides more force to keep the valve closed and generate longer stroke.

High-speed actuator can be achieved by the use of boosters to feed and exhaust air from cylinder. These boosters are actuated when the control signal calls for a 10% or so change in the valve opening. Boosters is use to direct the air to the cylinder while bypassing the positioner and by increasing the air feed line sizes and the air supply pressure.

Pneumatic pressure is used to power a rotary motor to drive any of the large gear actuator. Here control is done by a four way valve. Motor is running in one position. Reversal of 4-way valve causes reverse operation. An intermediate position causes the motor to stop.

Actuators which are available to drive rotary action valves, such as plug, ball and butterfly valves are known as rotary actuators/rotary valve actuators. The commonest is the rack and pinion type, which comprises a central shaft, two pistons and a central chamber all contained within a casing. The pistons and shaft have a rack and pinion drive .

Here air is fed into the central chamber(Figure-a), which forces the pistons outwards. The rack and pinion arrangement turns the shaft and, because the latter is coupled to the valve stem, the valve opens or closes. When the air pressure is relieved, movement of the shaft in the opposite direction occurs due to the force of the return springs (Figure-b).

It is also possible to obtain double acting versions, which have no return springs. Air can be fed into either side of the pistons to cause movement in either direction. As with diaphragm type actuators, they can also be fitted with positioner.

Valve Shaft

Rack Pinion

Rack Valve Shaft Pinion

AC Motor:
AC motor is produced by the interaction between two magnetic fields, which are varying with time. The force between the fields is a function of rotor angle but also phase current passing through the coil. Synchronous Motor Induction Motor

Synchronous Motor:

Synchronous Motor:
Here ac voltage is applied to the field coils, called stator and armature is called rotor.(PM/dc electromagnet),which possesses a fixed magnetic field.

120 f ns p

(in rpm)

Where f= excitation frequency p= no. of poles. ns = speed of rotation

Induction Motor: This is a three phase AC motor. Here current is induced from the stator coils.

Induction Motor: Induction motors use shorted wire loops on a rotating armature and obtain their torque from currents induced in these loops by the changing magnetic field produced in the stator (stationary) coils. These are widely used in industrial drives, control industry.

Stepping Motor:
A stepper motor is an electromechanical device which converts electrical pulses into discrete mechanical shaft rotation. Its a rotating machine which rotates fully by sequencing through a series of discrete rotational steps. Discrete step wise rotation is achieved by the input of a train of pulses. Rotational rate= (No. of steps/ revolution)+ The rate at which the pulses are required .

Stepping Motor:
90 /step. Rotor is PM. Switches=SCR or TRIAC.

Stepping Motor:
When pulses are given as input the switch sequencer will direct the switches through a sequence of positions. The direction of rotation of stepper motors can be changed just by changing the order in which different poles are activated and deactivated.

Stepper Motor Advantages The rotation angle of the motor is proportional to the input pulse. The motor has full torque at standstill (if the windings are energized). Precise positioning and repeatability of movement. Excellent response to starting/stopping/reversing. Very reliable Motor is simpler and less costly to control.