Youngs modulus(E) : ratio between tensile stress and tensile strain or compressive stress and compressive strain.

E=

Modulus of rigidity (C or N or G): ratio of shear stress to shear strain

Bulk or volume modulus of elasticity(K) : ratio of normal stress (on each face of a solid cube) to volumetric strain.

STRESS- STRAIN DIAGRAM

 Point A is called limit of proportionality. Upto this point stress is directly

proportional to strain and follows hooks law. Point B is the elastic limit. Stress corresponding to this point is the maximum stress to which a specimen regains its original length on removal of applied load. For mild steel B is very closer to A hence hooks law is followed upto B but for other materials B may be greater than A. Point C( not shown in fig.) is the upper yield point. It has no practical significance. Point C is lower yield point. The stress at C is the yield stress (y) or the lower yield point. The yielding begins at this stress and the material enters into plastic state. CD represents strain hardening D is the ultimate point. The stress corresponding to this point is called ultimate stress(ut or y ). This is maximum stress upto which the material can with stand without fracture. E is the fracture point . Stress corresponding this is called breaking stress and strain is called fracture strain. Region between D and E is the necking region, in which the area of cross section is drastically decreased.

ST. VENANT PRINCIPLE

It states that the actual distribution of load over the surfaces of any body will not effect the distribution of stress or strain on the sections of the body which are at appreciable distance(in terms of dimensions) away from the load except in the region of extreme ends of a bar carrying direct loading. Let avg is the direct stress at any section, then max at 1-1 = 1.387 avg max at 2-2 = 1.027 avg max at 3-3 = avg

FACTOR OF SAFETY
It is defined as the ratio of ultimate stress or ultimate strength to the working stress. It can also be expressed in terms of allowable and ultimate forces or loads respectively, that a member or a body can resist. Hence Factor of Safety, F.S. = Ultimate load/Ultimate stress for a member
Allowable load/Allowable stress for a member

For a member to withstand without failure , this ratio must always be greater than unity

STRAIN ENERGY
It is defined as the amount of work done (provided that no energy is added or subtracted in the form of heat) by the load on any body or a member that can cause strain or change in dimension of that member. If a tensile or compressive load (P) is applied on the body which causes change in length x, then the strain energy (U) can represented by the shaded area as shown in figure and can be expressed as U= Px = (2/2E)Al Where A is the cross sectional area (where the load is applied) and l is the initial length of the body. E is Youngs modulus of elasticity The unit of strain energy is joule(J) or N-m

RESILIENCE
The strain energy per unit volume of the material is known as resilience. It is also known as strain energy density. It represent the ability of the material to absorb energy within the elastic limit. It is denoted by u= 2/2E Modulus of resilience is the maximum elastic energy per unit volume that can be absorbed without attaining plastic range and can be expressed as u = 2y /2E Where y is yield strength of the material. The modulus of resilience depends upon the yield strength. Hence a material with higher yield strength will have higher modulus of resilience. It is also known as proof resilience.

SOME BASIC DEFINITIONS

Strength: - property of material by virtue of which it resist to deformation on applied external load. It is measured in N/mm2 Impact Strength ( or Toughness): - Property of the material to resist the deformation under impact load or sudden load. Unit of impact strength is J/m3 . The property of material to absorb energy without fracture. This property is very desirable in case of cyclic loading or shock loading. Unit of toughness is (KJ). Ductility: - It is the property of the material by which it can be stretched. Large deformations are thus possible in ductile materials before the absolute failure or rupture takes place. Some common examples are mild steel, aluminium, copper, manganese, lead nickel etc. Brittleness: - Brittleness is lack of ductility i.e. material cannot be stretched. In brittle materials, faliure takes place with a relatively smaller deformation.

Malleability: - This is the property of the material by virtue of which it can be uniformly extended into thin sheets without rupture. A malleable material possess high degree of plasticity. Creep: - It is the time dependent deformation of the material under constant load. When a material deform progressively with the passage of time under constant loading, even if the stress is below yield point, creep phenomena takes place. It is more pronounced at higher temperature and negligibly small at lower temperature and thus it must be considered for design of engines and furnaces. Fatigue: - The phenomenon of the fracture of material under variable loads( dynamic loads) is termed to as fatigue. These loads may be repeated for many cycles termed as cyclic loads. Hence we can say that referred to as the phenomenon of fracture under cyclic loading.

THERMAL STRESS AND STRAINS

If the temp. or a body changes its dimension also changes correspondingly. The stresses developed in the body due to these changes are called temperature/thermal stresses and corresponding strains are called temperature/thermal strains. let l= Length of bar of uniform cross section t1 = initial temp. of bar t2 = Final temp. of bar = Coefficient of linear expansion then the extension in bar due to rise in temperature is l = (t2 - t1 )l = lt therefore thermal strain= lt/l = t hence thermal stress = tE

IMPACT LOADING

STRESS IN BAR OF VARYING CROSS SECTION

COMPLEMENTARY SHEAR STRESS