The Endocrine System

hat are hormones?

Chemical substances secreted
by cells into extracellular fluid
Function in regulation of
metabolic activities of other
body cells
Most are amino-acid based
hormones.
Steroids are cholesterol
based.
Hormones target specific
ceIIs by recognizing specific
receptors in the plasma
membrane or with proteins
inside the cell
How the body responds
#esponse by the body
depends on
Blood levels of the
hormone
Relative numbers of
receptors on or in the
target cell
Strength of the union
between the hormone and
its receptor
Hormones are usually
secreted in small
amounts and duration of
effects vary
Stimuli that trigger hormone secretion
%hree major types of stimuIi result in
hormone secretion:
1. HumoraI levels of certain minerals, ions,
etc. in the blood (ex. Calcium ions)
2. NeuraI nerve stimuli (ex. ANS)
3. HormonaI one hormone may result in the
production or inhibition of another
Effects of Hormones
Hormones work by producing one or more
of the following changes:
1. Changes in plasma membrane permeability and/or
electrical state by opening or closing ion channels
2. Synthesis of proteins or certain regulatory molecules
within the cell
3. Enzyme activation or deactivation
4. nduction of secretory activity
5. Stimulation of mitosis
The Pituitary Gland
Known as master
gIand"
Location: in sella
turcica of sphenoid
bone, attached to
hypothalamus by
stem called
infundibulum
Two lobes: Anterior
Lobe and Posterior
Lobe
Hormones of the Anterior Lobe
Growth Hormone
Also called Somatotropin
(Somatotropic Hormone)
Stimulates most body cells
to increase in size and
divide
Major target cells are
skeletal muscles and bone
Stimulates epiphyseal plate
to produce growth in long
bones and increases
skeletal muscle mass
Anabolic in nature,
encouraging use of fats for
energy and therefore
conserving glucose
(hyperglycemic effect)
GH Disorders - Gigantism
Childhood gigantism
Result of hypersecretion
GH Disorders - Acromegaly
Adulthood
Acromegaly enlargement and thickening of
bony areas still responsible to GH (specifically,
the hands, feet, and face), thickening soft
tissues of tongue and face
Acromegaly
GH Disorders - Dwarfism
Hyposecretion disorders
Childhood dwarfism; short stature but
with relatively normal body proportions
%hyroid StimuIating Hormone
(%SH) or %hyrotropin
StimuIates normaI deveIopment and
secretion of the thyroid gIand
drenocorticotropic Hormone
(%H) or orticotropin
Stimulates normal development and
secretion of the adrenal cortex
oIIicIe StimuIating Hormone
(SH)
Made by both sexes,
levels rising in puberty
emaIes promotes
development of ovarian
follicles (in turn,
producing estrogen)
MaIes promotes
development of
seminiferous tubules
(which produce sperm)
!roIactin (!#)
actogenic Hormone
stimulates milk
production by breasts
levels rise and fall with
influence of estrogen
(high estrogen levels
promote release of
prolactin)
Levels rise just prior to
menstruation
Continuation of secretion
stimulated by nursing
infants
nhibition in males due to
high levels of Prolactin
nhibiting Factor
uteinizing Hormone (H)
Produced by both sexes
LH in femaIes stimulates
ovulation and development
of the corpus luteum, aiding
development of uterine
lining and prepares breasts
for secretion
MaIes - called InterstitiaI
eII StimuIating Hormone
(ISH) stimulates
development of interstitial
cells in testes (production of
testosterone)
MeIanocyte StimuIating Hormone (MSH)
Promotes
deposition of
melanin in skin
following exposure
to sunlight or
atrophy of the
adrenal cortex
Hormones of the Posterior Lobe
ytocin
Strong stimulant for
uterine contractions
Released in
significantly higher
amounts during
childbirth and nursing
women
Number of receptors
increases during
pregnancy but peaks
near end
Stretching of uterus
stimulates release
Also causes milk
ejection
ntidiuretic Hormone
(H) or Vasopressin
nhibits urine production by promoting
water reabsorption from kidney tubules
Released when osmotic pressure of
blood decreases following water loss
nhibited by alcohol, drinking large
amounts of water
ADH Disorders
Hypertension caused
by hypersecretion of
ADH
Hyposecretion can
lead to diabetes
insipidus ("tasteless
urine) characterized
by copius amounts of
urine
%he %hyroid GIand
General nformation
ocation: anterior
neck on trachea just
inferior to larynx
Has two lobes
connected by
isthmus
Largest pure
endocrine gland
aIcitonin
Lowers calcium levels
Targets skeleton by
inhibiting osteoclast
activity and bone
reabsorption and release
of calcium from bone
matrix
Stimulates calcium
uptake and incorporation
into bone matrix
Appears most important
in childhood but in adults,
it is a weak hyocalcemic
agent
%hyroine (%) &
%riiodothyronine (%3)
Both require iodine
major metabolic
hormones
Affect almost every cell
Stimulates enzymes
concerned with glucose
oxidation and increases
basal metabolic rate,
body heat
mportant in maintaining
blood pressure and
important in regulating
tissue growth and
development
Hypothyroidism: Myxedema
"mucus swelling
adults
Characterized by low
BMR, feeling cold,
constipation, thick, dry
skin, puffy eyes, edema,
lethargy, mental
sluggishmess
ndemic goiter may
result (swelling of thyroid)
if due to lack of iodine
Goiters
Myxedema (continued)
A A 29-year old myxedema
patieint showing facial
puffiness, muscle weakness,
drooping eyelids.
B Same patient after 2 months
of thyroxine replacment
C 62 year old patient with
myxedema showing marked
edema of the face and
somnolent look. The hair is stiff
and without luster.
D Same paeitne after 3 months
of thyroxine treatment.
retinism
Children
Child has short,
disproportionate
body, thick tongue,
thick neck, mental
retardation
14yr old, severe
congenital
hypothyroidism
4 year old,
congenital
hypothyroidism
Grave's isease
Hyperthyroidism
Most common
Elevated BMR,
sweating, rapid and
irregular heart rate,
nervousness,
weight loss,
exopthalmos
The Parathyroid Gland
Location & Hormone
ocation: behind posterior aspect of
thyroid gland, two pair
!arathyroid Hormone (!%H)
Triggers increase in blood calcium level by
(1) stimulating osteoclastic activity,
releasing calcium into the blood (2)
enhancing reabsorption of calcium by
kidneys (3) increasing absorption of
calcium by intestines
Hyperparathyroidism
Rare and usually result
of tumor
Calcium is leached
from bones, bones
soften and deform
Bone calcium is
replaced with fibrous
tissue and bones break
easily
High calcium levels can
cause kidney stones
Hypoparathyroidism
Causes hypocalcemia, characterized by
excitability of neurons, symptoms of
tetany (loss of sensations, twitches,
convulsions) and can eventually
progress to spasms of the larynx and
respiratory paralysis, death
The Adrenal Glands
ocation: atop each kidney, two regions:
cortex and medulla
drenaI orte (hormones are
considered vital)
MineraIcorticoids
Regulate electrolyte
balance, especially
sodium and potassium
Idosterone is a
mineralcorticoid that
decreases excretion of
sodium from the body
by stimulating
reabsorption of sodium
in the kidneys; results in
water retention
GIucocorticoids
nfluence metabolism of
most body cells, keeps
blood sugar level fairly
constant, and maintains
blood volume by shifting
water into tissues,
promotes
gluconeogenesis
ortisone is a
glucocorticoid
Gonadotropins
Mainly androgens but
some estrogens
Little secreted
Hypersecretions result in
mascuIinization or
viriIization; in
prepubescent males and
females, results are
dramatic; males
maturation of
reproductive organs and
appearance of secondary
sex traits early; females
develop beard and
masculine pattern of body
hair, clitoris enlargement
Androgenital Syndrome
Hypersecretions of drenaI orte
ushing's isease
characterized by
persistent hyperglycemia,
dramatic loss of muscle
and bone protein, water
and salt retention,
hypertension, edema;
"moon face,
redistribution of fat to
abdomen and posterior
neck ("buffalo hump),
increased tendency to
bruise, poor wound
healing
Hyposecretions of drenaI orte
ddison's isease
usually involves both
mineral and
glucocorticoids; loss
of weight, significant
drop in blood sodium
levels, dehydration,
hypotension
drenaI MeduIIa (inner)
Secretes catecholemines called
epinephrine (adrenaIine) and
norepinephrine (NoradrenaIine)
Cause blood sugar level to increase,
vasoconstriction, heart rate increase, BP
increase, diversion of blood to brain, heart,
and skeletal muscles
The Pancreas
Location & Anatomy
ocation: Between
stomach & small
intestines
Made of acinar ceIIs
(enzyme production)
and isIets of
angerhans
(hormone production)
slets made of two cell
types: alpha cells and
beta cells
Alpha & Beta Cell Hormones
Ipha ceIIs
Produce gIucagon
Targets mainly liver,
promoting
glycogenolysis and
gluconeogenesis,
elevating blood
glucose levels
Beta ceIIs
Produce insuIin
Lowers blood glucose
and influences protein
and fat metabolism
nhibits
glycogenolysis and
gluconeogenesis
Hyposecretions of insuIin
iabetes meIIitus
Blood sugar levels remain
high after meals
Person feels nauseated
triggering release of
adrenaline to stimulate
glycogenolysis, lipolysis,
gluconeogenesis
Glucose traced in urine
(gIucosuria) and lost
Leads to possible
ketogenesis, as more fats
are utilized
Symptoms & Types of Diabetes
Major symptoms of diabetes meIIitus:
!oIyuria (excessive urine production)
poIydipsia (extreme thirst)
poIyphagia (extreme hunger)
%ype I, or InsuIin ependent iabetes
symptoms appear suddenly, usually before age
15, resulting from destruction of beta cells
%ype II, or Non-InsuIin-ependent iabetes
mostly after age 40, heredity, most produce
insulin but in inadequate amounts OR their
bodies fail to respond to insulin; common in
overweight individuals
The Testes
Hormones of Testes
Produce androgens, including testosterone
%estosterone is steroid made in interstitial cells
(ceIIs of eydig)
Causes appearance of secondary sex traits
(beard, axillary hair, pubic hair, voice change,
male libido)
astration removal of testes; prevents
appearance and after maturity traits are
lessened
The Ovaries
Hormones
varies
strogens and progesterone
Estrogen regulates menstrual cycle,
female secondary sex traits, female libido
Progesterone regulates menstrual cycle,
prepares uterus for pregnancy
The Placenta
Hormones
Makes estrogen, progesterone, Human
horionic Gonadotropin (HG)
HCG necessary for maintenance of corpus
luteum
HCG tested for by home pregnancy kits
The Kidneys
#enin controls
secretion of
aldosterone
Aids in forming
angiotensin (from
liver) which causes
hypertension and
vasoconstriction
The Thymus Gland
Located in mediastinum
Produces %hymosin aids in formation of
T-cells; largest in size at birth
The Pineal Body
Location roof of 3rd
brain ventricle
Produces many
hormones including
melatonin
MeIatonin affects
state of wakefulness;
levels vary in 24 hr
period, increasing
steadily and probably
triggers sleep