PHOTOLITHOGRAPHY

Photolithography
Process of transferring geometrical patterns from mask on to layer of radiation sensitive material covering the surface of wafer. Steps involved:
Coat wafer with resist. Exposing to radiation. Developing. Etching.

MASK: Chrome coated quartz plate

Photo-resist
Is a radiation sensitive material which changes chemically on exposure to light. Usually a carbon based organic molecule. Two types of resist:
Positive
Regions of resist exposed to light dissolve quickly in developer Unexposed regions remain unchanged and are not removed by developer Regions exposed to light are hard to remove by developer Unexposed regions are easily removed by developer

Negative

Positive resists result in better resolution than negative resist

Positive Lithography

Negative Lithography

Mask:
Same size as final chip or an integral factor of final chip. During exposure, the image size is reduced. Made of fused silica. Essential properties:
High degree of optical transparency. Small thermal expansion coefficient. Flat and polished surface. Resistant to scratches.

Opaque layer: Chromium.

Aligning the masks

Each successive layer has to be aligned with the previous layer. Each mask layer consists of alignment marks which help in aligning the layers on top of each other.

Features:
Resolution
Minimum feature size that can be transferred precisely.

Throughput
Number of wafers processed per hour.

Depth of focus
Masks must be aligned.

Lithography
X-ray

optical
E-beam

Contact printing

Proximity printing

Projection printing

Optical lithography
Most popular and oldest. Follows four basic steps. Contact printing:
Wafer in contact with mask. High resolution. Life of mask is less. contamination

Optical lithography
Proximity printing:
Mask close to wafer. No contact (10 to 25 m) Lesser resolution Higher mask life. Mask kept at higher distance. Highly focused image. Higher mask life. Compromise on cost.

Projection printing:

E-beam lithography
Optical lithography: ~0.5 microns For sub-micron fabrication: e-beam lithography.
Size < 1 m possible. Direct writing. Easy automation. Greater DOF.

HOW
E-beam diameter: 0.01 to 0.5 microns. Focused on substrate. Scanned over required area. Substrate placed on movable table.
After one scan field, need to move wafer for next imprinting.

E-beam lithography
For higher resolution smaller diameter. Smaller diameter low throughput.
Minimum feature size ~ 4 x diameter. Scan field ~ 2000 x diameter. Hence higher time.

E-beam resist
Basically organic polymers. 2 types : +ve and ve Positive resist
Softens with e-beam. Chemical bond breaking. Better resolution. Poor sensitivity.

 Negative resist:
Hardens when exposed to radiations. Cross-linking. Increase in molecular weight. Poor resolution due to swelling.

Issues regarding e-beam lithography

Slow process. Proximity effect.
Due to electron scattering. Inter proximity effect. Intra proximity effect.

USED MAINLY FOR MASKS

X-ray lithography
An extension of optical lithography. No direct writing. Proximity printing. Distance 40 to 50 m

Characteristics..
Faster throughput. Good resolution. No proximity effect. No effect of dirt. Straight walls due to low absorption.

HOW
Electron beam focused to water cooled Palladium target. Generates x-rays ( =4.37 angstrom) Passed through beryllium window and sent to chamber. Chamber filled with He. He doesnt absorb x-rays. Mask and substrate kept at close proximity. Substrate is developed by x-rays.

 Smaller higher resolution. X-ray mask: thin membrane coated with gold. All e-beam resist can be used as xray resist. Mainly PMMA

Limitations
Geometric effects.
Mask is at a distance. Instead of point, a blur region formed. Depends on
Diameter of x-ray Distance between mask and substrate. Distance between light source and mask