Definitions

Air-Conditioning
PSYCHROMETRICS uses thermodynamic properties to analyze conditions and
processes involving moist air.
Atmospheric air contains many gaseous components as well as water vapor and
miscellaneous contaminants (e.g., smoke, pollen).
Dry air is atmospheric air with all water vapor and contaminants removed.
Moist air is a binary mixture of dry air and water vapor. The amount of water vapor
varies from zero (dry air) to a maximum that depends on temperature and pressure.

Note: Water may be present in air in the liquid form, as rain or mist, or as a solid
(snow). However, in general ambient and indoor conditions the water present in the
air will be in the vapor form, i.e. as superheated low-pressure steam.
Definitions
The Psychrometric Chart
Air-Conditioning
Psychrometric Chart
The Saturation Curve
If the condition of the mixture lies on the saturation line, the air is said to be
saturated, meaning that any decrease in temperature will result in condensation of
water vapor into liquid.
To the right of the saturation line, the air is unsaturated.
To the left of the saturation line, the air is super-saturated.
Due to slight interaction of air and water vapor molecules, steam table data needs to
modified slightly. Compare Tables A-1 and A-2 of your textbook.
Psychrometric Chart
The Relative-Humidity Lines
Relative humidity is the ratio of the amount of moisture the air holds m
v
relative to
the maximum amount of moisture the air can hold at the same temperature m
g
. It
measures the airs ability to absorb more moisture.
T
g
v
m
m
= |
For perfect gas relationships, this becomes*
T
g
v
P
P
= |
which represents the ratio of the existing partial
pressure of water vapor to the saturation
pressure of pure water at the same temperature.

These lines can be added by marking off vertical
distances between the saturation line and the
base of the chart.
* See ASHRAE Handbook - FUNDAMENTALS
where
T sat g
P P
@
=
Psychrometric Chart
The Humidity Ratio Lines
Humidity ratio W or (alternatively, the moisture content or mixing ratio) of a given
moist air sample is defined as the ratio of the mass of water vapor to the mass of dry
air in the sample:
da
v
da
v
x
x
m
m
W 622 . 0 = =
where
622 . 0
96 . 28
01 . 18
= =
da
v
M
M
* See ASHRAE Handbook - FUNDAMENTALS
For perfect gas relationships, this becomes*
v
v
P P
P
W

= 622 . 0
e
where is the total mixture pressure.
The above equation shows that the relation between
W and P
v
is not exactly linear.
v da
P P P + =
Psychrometric Chart
The enthalpy of moist air, h, is the sum of the enthalpy of its individual components.
Therefore, the specific enthalpy of moist air can be written as follows:
v da
da
v v da da
da
v da
da
m
Wh h
m
h m h m
m
H H
m
H
h + =
+
=
+
= =
(Units are kJ/kg
da
)
The temperature of the atmospheric air in air-conditioning applications ranges from
about 10 to about 50
o
C. Under these conditions, we treat air as an ideal gas with
constant specific heats. Taking C
p,da
= 1.005 kJ/kgK, the enthalpy of the dry air is
given by (assuming the reference state to be 0
o
C where the reference enthalpy is
taken to be 0 kJ/kg)
t t c h
da p da
005 . 1
,
= =
where t is the temperature of air-vapor mixture in C.
The enthalpy of the water vapor is approximated by
h
v
(t) = h
g @ t
. The T-s diagram for water illustrates the
ideal-gas behavior at low vapor pressures. Thus, the
saturated vapor value of the enthalpy is a function of
temperature and can be expressed as
The Enthalpy Lines
t t h h
g v
82 . 1 3 . 2501 ) ( + ~ =
Psychrometric Chart
where 1.82 kJ/kg.C is the average c
p
value of water vapor (for 10 to 50 C).
A line of constant enthalpy can now be added to the psychrometric chart (Figure on
right).
Note: For the dry air-water vapor mixture, the partial pressure of the water vapor in
the mixture is less that its saturation pressure at the mixture temperature (Figure on
left).
P P
v sat T
mix
s
@
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 12
-25
25
75
125
s [kJ/kg-K]
T

[
C
]
P
v
= 1.491 kPa
P
g
= 3.169 kPa
Steam
o
T
dp
T
m
Vapor State

Psychrometric Chart
The Specific Volume Lines
The ideal gas equation is used to calculate the specific-volume of the air-vapor
mixture. It is the volume of the mixture (V
m
) per kilogram of dry air.
da
m
da
m
N
V
m
V
v
96 . 28
= =
m u da m da
T R N V P =
Assuming dry-air to be a perfect gas
v
da
P P
T R
v

=
da
m u
P
T R
v
96 . 28
=
Substituting, we get
But, we know that
da u
R R = 96 . 28 /
The Adiabatic Saturation Process

Air having a relative humidity less than 100 percent flows over water contained in a
well-insulated duct. Since the air has < 100 percent, some of the water will evaporate
and the temperature of the air-vapor mixture will decrease.
|
Psychrometric Chart
If the mixture leaving the duct is
saturated and if the process is adiabatic,
the temperature of the mixture on
leaving the device is known as the
adiabatic saturation temperature.
Straight-line Law: When air is
transferring heat and mass (water) to or
from a wetted surface, the condition of
the air shown on a psychrometric chart
drives towards the saturation line at the
temperature of the wetted surface. This
law asserts that point 2 lies on a straight
line drawn between point 1 and the
saturation curve at the wetted surface
temperature.
For this to be a steady-flow process, makeup water at the adiabatic saturation
temperature is added at the same rate at which water is evaporated.

We assume that the total pressure is constant during the process.

Apply the conservation of energy to the steady-flow control volume

( )

( ) Q m h
V
gz W m h
V
gz
net i
inlets
i net e
exits
e
+ + + = + + +


2 2
2 2
Neglecting the kinetic and potential energies and noting that the heat transfer and
work are zero, we get
Conservation of mass for the steady-flow control volume is
m m
i
inlets
e
exits

=
Psychrometric Chart
For the dry air:
For the water vapor:
2 , 2 , 2 , 2 , 2 , 2 , 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , v v da da w w v v da da
h m h m h m h m h m + = + +
da da da
m m m = =
2 , 1 ,
2 , 2 , 1 , v w v
m m m = +
The mass flow rate water that must be supplied to maintain steady-flow is,
Divide the conservation of energy equation by , then m
a
What are the knowns and unknowns in this equation?
Solving for W
1
,
Psychrometric Chart
) (
1 2 2 , 2 , 2 ,
W W m m m m
da v v w
= =
2 , 2 2 , 2 , 1 2 1 , 1 1 ,
) (
v da w v da
h W h h W W h W h + = + +
) (
) (
) (
) (
2 , 1 ,
2 , 2 1 2 ,
2 , 1 ,
2 , 2 , 2 1 , 2 ,
1
f g
fg da p
w v
w v da da
h h
h W T T c
h h
h h W h h
W

+
=

+
=
Since W
1
is also defined, we can solve for P
v,1
Then the relative humidity at state 1 is:

=
1 , 1
1 ,
1
622 . 0
v
v
P P
P
W
1
1 1
1 ,
622 . 0 W
P W
P
v
+
=
1 ,
1 ,
1
g
v
P
P
= |
Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures

In normal practice, the state of atmospheric air is specified by determining the wet-
bulb and dry-bulb temperatures. These temperatures are measured by using a device
called a psychrometer. It is composed of two thermometers mounted on a sling.
One is fitted with a wet gauze and reads the wet-bulb temperature. The other one
reads the dry-bulb, or ordinary, temperature.
Psychrometric Chart
As the psychrometer is slung through the air, water
vaporizes from the wet gauze, resulting in a lower
temperature to be registered by the thermometer. The
dryer the atmospheric air, the lower the wet-bulb
temperature will be. When the relative humidity of the air
is near 100%, there will be little difference between the
wet-bulb and dry-bulb temperatures. The wet-bulb
temperature is approximately equal to the adiabatic
saturation temperature. The wet-bulb and dry-bulb
temperatures and the atmospheric pressure uniquely
determine the state of the atmospheric air.
For a given, fixed, total air-vapor pressure, the mixture properties are shown on the
psychrometric chart.
Psychrometric Chart
Psychrometric Chart
More Psychrometric Terminologies
Specific humidity is the ratio of the mass of water vapor to total mass of the
moist air sample:

W
W
m m
m
da v
v
+
=
+
=
1
Mass of mixture


Based on the volume flow rate of mixture at a given state, the mass flow rate of dry
air is
) 1 ( ) 1 ( W m
m
m
m m m m
da
da
v
da v da
+ = + = + =
v
V
m
da

=
(Units are kg
da
/s)
Note: Using the definition of the humidity ratio, the relative humidity may be expressed
as
g
P W
P W
) 622 . 0 ( +

= |
g
g
P P
P
W


=
|
| 622 . 0
and
More Psychrometric Terminologies
Water Vapor Density d
v
is the ratio of the mass of water vapor to the total volume of
the sample:
V
m
d
v
v
=
) 1 )( / 1 ( W v
V
m m
v da
+ =
+
=
The Density of a moist air mixture is the ratio of the total mass to the total volume:
where v is the moist air specific volume as already defined.
Problem 2

Atmospheric air at 30
o
C, 100 kPa, has a dew point of 21.3
o
C. Find the relative
humidity, humidity ratio, and h of the mixture per mass of dry air.
Psychrometric Chart: Example
Problem 1

Consider a room that contains air at 1 atm, 35
o
C and 40% relative humidity. Using the
psychrometric chart, determine the humidity ratio, the enthalpy, the wet-bulb
temperature and dew-point temperature and the specific volume of the air.
Assignment: Do problem 13-14, 13-19 from Cengel and Boles, 4
th
Edition.
Air-Conditioning Processes
Air-Conditioning
Air-Conditioning Processes
Air-conditioning systems are designed to meet human comfort needs.
The amount of heat the human body generates depends on the level of activity. It may
be approximately 87 W (while sleeping) or 115 W (while resting/doing office work) or
even 440 W (when doing heavy physical work).
Most people feel comfortable when the environment temperature is between 22 and
27 C. Furthermore, the relative humidity should be from 40 to 60%.
Air speed also plays vital role. Most people feel comfortable with an air speed of about
15 m/min.
Other factors that affect comfort are cleanliness, odor & radiation effect.
Air-conditioning processes include: simple heating, simple
cooling, humidification and dehumidification. Sometimes
two or more of these processes may need to be performed.

Air-Conditioning Processes
Found in residential heating systems e.g. electric resistance heaters.
Since no moisture is added/removed, the humidity ratio remains constant.
Dry-bulb temperature will increase and relative humidity will decrease. The latter may
cause dry skin, respiratory difficulty etc.
Cooling process at constant humidity ratio is similar to the above heating process
except that the dry-bulb temperature will decrease and relative humidity will increase.
Simple Heating and Cooling (W = constant)
1 1 1
, , | W T
1 , 2 , 2
;
da da
m m T =
;
1 2
W W =
1 2
| < |
W
2
|
1
|
1 , da
m
) (
1 2
h h m Q
da
=

Energy balance:

Air-Conditioning Processes
Problems due to low relative humidity resulting from simple heating can be removed
by humidifying the air.
Done by first heating (process 1-2) and then humidifying (process 2-3).
Location of state 3 depends on how the humidification is achieved. Steaming will
cause humidification with additional heating (T
3
> T
2
). If water is sprayed, part of the
latent heat of vaporization will come from the air, which will result in cooling of the
heated airstream (T
3
< T
2
).
Heating with Humidification
1 2
W W =
2 3
W W >
% 30
1
= |
% 60
3
= |
1 , da
m
) (
2 3
W W m m
da w
=
Water mass
balance (2-3):
1 , 3 , da da
m m =
Problem 1

An air-conditioning system is to take in outdoor air at 10 C and 30% relative humidity
at a steady rate of 45 m
3
/min and to condition it to 25 C and 60% relative humidity.
The outdoor air is first heated to 22 C in the heating section and then humidified by
the injection of hot steam in the humidifying section. Assuming that the entire process
takes place at a pressure of 100 kPa, determine (a) the rate of heat supply in the
heating section and (b) the mass flow rate of the steam required in the humidifying
section.
Air-Conditioning Processes
% 30
1
= |
% 60
3
= |
1
|
3
|
Air-Conditioning Processes
Problems due to high relative humidity resulting from simple cooling can be removed
by dehumidifying the air. Achieved by cooling the air below its dew point temperature.
Once the air reaches its dew point (state x), further cooling results in condensation of
part of the moisture in the air.
The condensate is usually assumed to leave the cooling section at T
2
.
In some cases, the air at state 2 is passed through a heating section where its
temperature is raised to a more comfortable level before it is routed to the room.
Cooling with Dehumidification
% 80
1
= |
% 100
2
= |
min / 10
% 80
30
3
1
1
1
m V
C T
o
=
= |
=

% 100
14
2
2
= |
= C T
o
C
o
14
w w da
h m h h m Q

= ) (
2 1
Energy balance:
Air-Conditioning Processes
Problem 1

Air enters a window air-conditioner at 1 atm, 30 C and 80% relative humidity at a
rate of 10 m
3
/min and it leaves as saturated air at 14 C. Part of the moisture in the
air that condenses during the process is also removed at 14 C. Determine the rates
of heat and moisture removal from the air.
% 80
1
= |
% 100
2
= |
min / 10
% 80
30
3
1
1
1
m V
C T
o
=
= |
=

% 100
14
2
2
= |
= C T
o
C
o
14
Assignment: Do problem 13-77 from Cengel and Boles, 4
th
Edition.
Air-Conditioning Processes
Water vapor from the air is absorbed or adsorbed by a hygroscopic material e.g. silica
gel, zeolites etc. Since the process, if thermally isolated, is essentially one of constant
enthalpy, and since the humidity ratio decreases, the temperature of the air must
increase.
Chemical Dehumidification
Air-Conditioning Processes
High cost of cooling can be avoided in desert climates by using evaporative cooling.
Evaporative cooling is the cooling achieved when water evaporates in dry air. It will not
work on humid climates.
During the process, temperature of the air stream decreases and humidity increases.
Lowest temperature that can be achieved is the limiting case, where the air leaves in a
saturated state ( 2
/
).
The approximation of isenthalpic process is commonly used in A.C. calculations.
Evaporative Cooling
Problem 1

Air enters an evaporative cooler at the rate of 4 m
3
/min. Considering the conditions
shown in the figure below, determine (a) the exit temperature of the air and (b) the
required rate of water supply are to be determined.
Air-Conditioning Processes
Assignment: Do problem 13-93 from Cengel and Boles, 4
th
Edition.
3 2
W W
1 3
W W
Air-Conditioning Processes
Process can be usually assumed to be adiabatic.
The mass and energy balances can be combined to give the relation:


When two airstreams at two different states (1 and 2) are mixed adiabatically, the state
of the mixture (state 3) lies on the straight line connecting states 1 and 2 on the
psychrometric chart, and the ratio of the distances 2-3 and 3-1 is equal to the ratio of
the mass flow rates of dry air and .
Adiabatic Mixing of Airstreams
1
1
h
W
2
2
h
W
3
3
h
W
) (
) (
) (
) (
1 3
3 2
1 3
3 2
2 ,
1 ,
h h
h h
W W
W W
m
m
da
da

1 , da
m
2 , da
m
Air-Conditioning Processes
Problem 1

Saturated air leaving the cooling section of an air-conditioning system at 14 C at a
rate of 50 m
3
/min is mixed adiabatically with the outside air at 32 C and 60% relative
humidity at a rate of 20 m
3
/min. Assuming that the mixing process occurs at a
pressure of 1 atm, determine the humidity ratio, the relative humidity, the dry-bulb
temperature and the volume flow rate of the mixture.
Air-Conditioning Systems
Air-Conditioning