ECE123 / A11 MARTINEZ, RP ACERVO, GCR VALEROSO, MJR

Rectangular Waveguide Circular Waveguide Dielectric Waveguide Elliptical / Ridge / Planar Waveguide TE and TM Modes Dominant Mode Waveguide Terminations, Joins, Bends

Introduction to Waveguides

Waveguides are metallic transmission lines that are used at microwave frequencies, typically to interconnect transmitters and receivers (transceivers) with antennas A waveguide is a special form of transmission line consisting of a hollow, metal tube. The tube wall provides distributed inductance, while the empty space between the tube walls provide distributed capacitance A system of material boundaries in the form of a solid dielectric rod or dielectric-filled tubular conductor capable of guiding high-frequency electromagnetic waves A material medium that confines and guides a propagating electromagnetic wave. A rectangular, circular, or elliptical metal pipe designed to transport electromagnetic waves through its interior.

Introduction to Waveguides

Advantages of Waveguides

It is completely shielded (excellent isolation between adjacent signals can be obtained) It can transmit extremely high peak powers
Waveguides can handle more power than coaxial

lines of the same size because power-handling capability is directly related to the distance between conductors

It has very low loss (often almost negligible) at microwave frequencies

The large surface area of waveguides greatly

reduces COPPER (I2R) LOSSES DIELECTRIC LOSSES are also lower in waveguides than in two-wire and coaxial transmission lines

Disadvantages of Waveguides

High cost
Manufacturing volumes are low Waveguide materials such as copper and silver are

relatively expensive

Unwieldy size and mass, particularly at lower frequencies

Physical size is the primary lower-frequency limitation of

waveguides. The width of a waveguide must be approximately a half wavelength at the frequency of the wave to be transported. For example, a waveguide for use at 1 megahertz would be about 500 feet wide. This makes the use of waveguides at frequencies below 1000 megahertz increasingly impractical. The lower frequency range of any system using waveguides is limited by the physical dimensions of the waveguides.

Disadvantages of Waveguides

Waveguides are difficult to install because of their rigid, hollow-pipe shape. Special couplings at the joints are required to assure proper operation. Also, the inside surfaces of waveguides are often plated with silver or gold to reduce SKIN EFFECT losses. These requirements increase the costs and decrease the practicality of waveguide systems at any other than microwave frequencies.

Types of RF waveguide
Rectangular waveguide Circular waveguide Dielectric waveguide Other types:

Elliptical waveguide Ridge waveguide Planar waveguide

Rectangular Waveguide

The most common kind of waveguide is one that has a rectangular cross-section, one that is usually not square. It is common for the long side of this cross-section to be twice as long as its short side. These are useful for carrying electromagnetic waves that have a horizontal or vertical polarization to them.

Circular Waveguide

The second most commonly used kind of waveguide has a circular cross-section. These turn out to be quite useful when carrying electromagnetic waves with a rotating, circular polarization to them. Then, its electrical field traces out a helical pattern as a function of time.

Dielectric Waveguide

A waveguide that consists of a dielectric material surrounded by another dielectric material, such as air, glass, or plastic, with a lower refractive index.
An example of a dielectric waveguide is an optical

fiber. A metallic waveguide filled with a dielectric material is not a dielectric waveguide.

Elliptical Waveguide

Seldom-used kind of waveguide, has an elliptical cross-section

Ridge Waveguide

A circular or rectangular waveguide having one or more longitudinal internal ridges that serve primarily to increase transmission bandwidth by lowering the cut-off frequency. The ridge waveguide, a rectangular waveguide with one or more metal inserts (ridges), is an important transmission line in microwave engineering and is now widely used in commercial electronics and communications devices.

Planar Waveguides

Planar waveguides are waveguides with a planar geometry, which guide light only in one dimension. They are often fabricated in the form of a thin transparent film with increased refractive index on some substrate, or possibly embedded between two substrate layers.

A planar waveguide made on a crystal or glass piece.

Waveguide Modes of Propagation

TE waves - Transverse electric waves, also sometimes called H waves, are characterised by the fact that the electric vector (E) is always perpendicular to the direction of propagation. TM waves - Transverse magnetic waves, also called E waves are characterised by the fact that the magnetic vector (H vector) is always perpendicular to the direction of propagation.

Note: TEM waves - The Transverse electromagnetic wave cannot be propagated within a waveguide.

Dominant Mode

The mode with the lowest cutoff frequency is termed the dominant mode of the waveguide. It is usual to choose the size of the guide such that only this one mode can exist in the frequency band of operation.

Dominant Mode

Rectangular waveguides:
The TE10 mode is the dominant mode of a

rectangular waveguide with a>b, since it has the lowest attenuation of all modes. Either m or n can be zero, but not both. For TM modes, m=0 and n=0 are not possible, thus, TM11 is the lowest possible TM mode.

In circular waveguides, the dominant mode is TE1,1 mode

Mode Numbering System

The widest dimension of a waveguide is called the a dimension and determines the range of operating frequencies. The narrowest dimension determines the power-handling capability of the waveguide and is called the b dimension.

Mode Numbering System

Since there are several TE and TM modes, subscripts are used to complete the description of the field pattern. In rectangular waveguides, the first subscript indicates the number of half-wave patterns in the a dimension, and the second subscript indicates the number of half-wave patterns in the b dimension. A similar system is used to identify the modes of circular waveguides. The general classification of TE and TM is true for both circular and rectangular waveguides. In circular waveguides the subscripts have a different meaning. The first subscript indicates the number of fillwave patterns around the circumference of the waveguide. The second subscript indicates the number of half-wave patterns across the diameter.

Summary of Rectangular Waveguide Modes

Cutoff Frequency/Wavelength
The lowest frequency in which a certain mode can propagate. Rectangular Waveguide

Cutoff Frequency/Wavelength

Cutoff Frequency/Wavelength

Circular Waveguide:
TM (Transverse Magnetic) Mode

TE (Transverse Electric) Mode

Guide Wavelength

Guide wavelength is defined as the distance between two equal phase planes along the waveguide. The guide wavelength is a function of operating wavelength (or frequency) and the lower cutoff wavelength, and is always longer than the wavelength would be in free-space.

Other Formulas

Phase Velocity

Group Velocity

Group Delay - is defined as the rate of change of transmission phase angle with respect to frequency.

Waveguide Flanges, Couplers and Transitions

Waveguide Launcher

A signal can be entered into the waveguide in a number of ways. The most straightforward is to use what is known as a launcher. This is basically a small probe which penetrates a small distance into the centre of the waveguide itself as shown. Often this probe may be the centre conductor of the coaxial cable connected to the waveguide. The probe is orientated so that it is parallel to the lines of the electric field which is to be set up in the waveguide. An alternative method is to have a loop which is connected to the wall of the waveguide. This encompasses the magnetic field lines and sets up the electromagnetic wave in this way. However for most applications it is more convenient to use the open circuit probe. These launchers can be used for transmitting signals into the waveguide as well as receiving them from the waveguide.

Waveguide Launcher

Waveguide Flanges

In order that sections of waveguide may be joined, waveguide flanges are used. These waveguide flanges come in a variety of standard formats, enabling the right types of waveguide flange to be used for the given application, but also being standardised, flanges from different manufacturers can mate together, provided they conform to the same style or standard.

Waveguide Flanges

Waveguide Flanges

Waveguide flange leakage

One aspect of waveguide flanges that is of particular importance is the

leakage that occurs across the joint. As the joints across the waveguide flanges are metal to metal contact, and they may not be completely flat and perfect some leakage will always occur.

Waveguide flange insertion loss - The waveguide flange insertion loss will arise mainly from two main factors:
Loss arising from leakage - The leakage through the joint between two

waveguide flanges is normally small, but in some instances a poor joint may give rise to measurable levels of loss due to leakage. Loss arising from flange resistance - If the two waveguide flanges are not bolted together tightly enough, there will be resistance between the flanges. As the waveguide relies on the conduction in the surface of the waveguide for its transmission, the resistance between the two waveguide flanges is critical. Additionally the resistance of the waveguide surface is crucial because of the skin effect which is very pronounced at these frequencies. Accordingly the resistance of the waveguide flanges is particularly important in the region closes to the cavity.

Waveguide Junctions

Waveguide junctions are used when power in a waveguide needs to be split or some extracted. There are a number of different types of waveguide junction that can be use, each type having different properties - the different types of waveguide junction affect the energy contained within the waveguide in different ways.

Waveguide Junctions

Waveguide Junction Types

H-type T Junction - This type of waveguide junction

gains its name because top of the "T" in the T junction is parallel to the plane of the magnetic field, H lines in the waveguide. E-Type T Junction - This form of waveguide junction gains its name as an E- type T junction because the tope of the "T" extends from the main waveguide in the same plane as the electric field in the waveguide. Magic T waveguide junction - The magic T waveguide junction is effectively a combination of the E-type and Htype waveguide junctions. Hybrid Ring Waveguide Junction - This form of waveguide junction is another form of waveguide junction that is more complicated than either the basic E-type or Htype waveguide junction.

Waveguide Junctions

E-type Waveguide Junction

Waveguide Junctions

H-type Waveguide Junction

Waveguide Junctions

Magic T Hybrid Waveguide Junction

Waveguide Flanges, Couplers and Transitions

Hybrid Ring Waveguide Junction

Waveguide Bends

Waveguide is normally rigid, except for flexible waveguide, and therefore it is often necessary to direct the waveguide in a particular direction. Using waveguide bends and twists it is possible to arrange the waveguide into the positions required. When using waveguide bends and waveguide twists, it is necessary to ensure the bending and twisting is accomplished in the correct manner otherwise the electric and magnetic fields will be unduly distorted and the signal will not propagate in the manner required causing loss and reflections. Accordingly waveguide bend and waveguide twist sections are manufactured specifically to allow the waveguide direction to be altered without unduly destroying the field patterns and introducing loss.

Waveguide Bends

Types of waveguide bend

Waveguide E bend - This form of waveguide bend

is called an E bend because it distorts or changes the electric field to enable the waveguide to be bent in the required direction. To prevent reflections this waveguide bend must have a radius greater than two wavelengths.

Waveguide Bends
Waveguide H bend - This form

of waveguide bend is very similar to the E bend, except that it distorts the H or magnetic field. It creates the bend around the thinner side of the waveguide. As with the E bend, this form of waveguide bend must also have a radius greater than 2 wavelengths to prevent undue reflections and disturbance of the field.

Waveguide Bends
Waveguide sharp E bend Waveguide sharp H bend - This form of

waveguide bend is the same as the sharp E bend, except that the waveguide bend affects the H field rather than the E field.

Waveguide Bends
There are also instances where the waveguide may require twisting. This too, can be accomplished. A gradual twist in the waveguide is used to turn the polarisation of the waveguide and hence the waveform. In order to prevent undue distortion on the waveform a 90 twist should be undertaken over a distance greater than two wavelengths of the frequency in use. If a complete inversion is required, e.g. for phasing requirements, the overall inversion or 180 twist should be undertaken over a four wavelength distance. Waveguide bends and waveguide twists are very useful items to have when building a waveguide system. Using waveguide E bends and waveguide H bends and their sharp bend counterparts allows the waveguide to be turned through the required angle to meet the mechanical constraints of the overall waveguide system. Waveguide twists are also useful in many applications to ensure the polarisation is correct.

Summary: Comparison between Transmission Lines and WaveguidesLine Transmission Waveguide

Two or more conductors separated by some insulating medium (two-wire, coaxial, microstrip, etc.). Metal waveguides are typically one enclosed conductor filled with an insulating medium (rectangular, circular) while a dielectric waveguide consists of multiple dielectrics. Operating modes are TE or TM modes (cannot support a TEM mode).

Normal operating mode is the TEM or quasi-TEM mode (can support TE and TM modes but these modes are typically undesirable).

No cutoff frequency for the TEM mode. Must operate the waveguide at a Transmission lines can transmit signals frequency above the respective TE or from DC up to high frequency. TM mode cutoff frequency for that mode to propagate. Significant signal attenuation at high frequencies due to conductor and dielectric losses. Lower signal attenuation at high frequencies than transmission lines.

Summary: Comparison between Transmission Lines and Waveguides

Transmission Line
Small cross-section transmission lines (like coaxial cables) can only transmit low power levels due to the relatively high fields concentrated at specific locations within the device (field levels are limited by dielectric breakdown). Large cross-section transmission lines (like power transmission lines) can transmit high power levels.

Waveguide
Metal waveguides can transmit high power levels. The fields of the propagating wave are spread more uniformly over a larger cross-sectional area than the small cross-section transmission line. Large cross-section (low frequency) waveguides are impractical due to large size and high cost.

Questions: Waveguides
What is the dominant mode for the TE waves in the rectangular waveguide? 2. What is the dominant mode for the TM waves in the rectangular waveguide? 3. Why TEM mode is not possible in a rectangular waveguide? 4. Explain why TM01 and TM10 modes in a rectangular waveguide do not exist. 5. Why circular waveguides are not preferred over rectangular waveguides?
1.

Answers: Waveguides
TE10 2. TM11 3. For propagation, either electric or magnetic field is zero but not both. TEM mode has electric and magnetic fields equal to zero. 4. Because indexes of 0s does not exist for TM mode.
1.