Chapter 1

1.3 Scalar and Vector Quantities

Understanding Scalar and Vector Quantities

1. A scalar quantity is a quantity which has only magnitude or size.

Mass = 58 kg

Understanding Scalar and Vector Quantities

2. A vector quantity has both magnitude/size and direction.

Velocity = 900 km/h down south.

Understanding Scalar and Vector Quantities

3 When we say that the temperature of a room is 28C, or a bottle contains 500 cm3 of milk, we are dealing with scalar quantities. On the other hand, a force of 120 N acting downwards is a vector quantity.

120N

Understanding Scalar and Vector Quantities

4. Time, temperature, mass, volume, distance, density and power are examples of scalar quantities. These quantities can be added using simple mathematical rules.

40W 45 cm3

Understanding Scalar and Vector Quantities

5. Force, velocity, displacement, acceleration and momentum are vector quantities.

Force

Displacement, AC

Understanding Scalar and Vector Quantities

5. Force, velocity, displacement, acceleration and momentum are vector quantities. To find a resultant vector, all vector quantities are either added or subtracted taking into account the magnitude and direction of the individual vector.

Chapter 1

1.4 Measurements

Understanding Measurements

Nature of Measurement 1 Measurements are trials to determine the true value of a particular physical quantity.

Understanding Measurements

2 The difference between the true value of a quantity and the value obtained in measurement is the error.
Actual mass = 60 kg
Weighing machine = 59 kg

Error = 60 - 59 = 1kg

Understanding Measurements

Nature of Measurement 3 No measurement can be absolutely accurate; there will be some sort of error in a measurement.
Thickness of book

1.5 cm 1.518 cm 1.52 cm

Errors in Measurement

1. There are two main types of errors. (a) Systematic errors (b) Random errors

Errors in Measurement

Systematic Errors 1 Systematic errors are cumulative errors that can be compensated for, if the errors are known.

Errors in Measurement

Systematic Errors 2 Systematic errors in measurement result from (a) an incorrect position of the zero point, or known as zero error, and

Errors in Measurement

Systematic Errors 2 Systematic errors in measurement result from (a) an incorrect position of the zero point, or known as zero error, and (b) an incorrect calibration of the measuring instrument.

Errors in Measurement

3 Systematic errors always occur (with the same value) when we continue to use the instrument in the same way.

Errors in Measurement

4 A zero error arises when the measuring instrument does not start from exactly zero.

Errors in Measurement

5 Zero errors are consistently present in every reading of a measurement so that the results obtained may be precise but lack in accuracy.

Errors in Measurement

6. Systematic errors cannot be eliminated by repeating the measurements and averaging out the results. It only can be eliminated or corrected if the measuring instruments are calibrated or adjusted frequently.

Errors in Measurement

Random Errors
1 Random errors occurs due to mistakes made when making measurement either through incorrect positioning of the eye or the instrument. It will produce a different error every time you repeat the experiment. They may vary from observation to observation. You measure the mass of a ring three times using the same balance and get slightly different values: 17.46 g, 17.42 g, 17.44 g

Errors in Measurement

Random Errors 2. Random errors can be minimised by repeating the measurements several times and taking the average or
mean value of the readings. You measure the mass of a ring three times using the same balance and get slightly different values: 17.46 g, 17.42 g, 17.44 g
17.46 17.42 17.44 17.44 g Average/mean = 3

Errors in Measurement

Random Errors 3. A parallax error is an error caused by incorrect positioning of the eye when reading a measurement. Error = + 0.2ml Error = + 0.1ml Error = - 0.1ml

Errors in Measurement

Random Errors 4. If he repeats his reading several times, and takes the average of the results, he will end up with an answer that is closer to the true value; but repeating measurements does nothing at all for the first observer.

Errors in Measurement

Random Errors 5 (a) To avoid parallax errors, the position of the eye must be in line with the reading to be taken, as in position C.

Errors in Measurement

5 (b) To overcome parallax errors in instruments with a scale and pointer, e.g. an ammeter, often have a mirror behind the pointer. The correct reading is obtained by making sure that that the eye is exactly in front of the pointer, so that the reflection of the pointer in the mirror is behind it (refer Figure 1.3).

Errors in Measurement

5 (b)

Eye

Eye

Consistency, Accuracy and Sensitivity

Consistency/Precision 1 The consistency of a measuring instrument is its ability to register the same reading when a measurement is repeated.

Consistency, Accuracy and Sensitivity

Consistency/Precision 2 A set of readings from identical instruments will have a small relative deviation or no deviation from the mean value.
High consistency => Small deviation from the mean value

Big deviation: 54kg, 56kg, 57kg Small deviation: 54kg, 54kg, 55kgPrecise

Consistency, Accuracy and Sensitivity

Consistency/Precision 3 A deviation is the difference between a measured value and its mean value or the average value.
Average reading of diameter = 3.24 cm One of the reading = 3.26 cm

Deviation = 3.26 3.24 = 0.02 cm

Consistency, Accuracy and Sensitivity

Consistency/Precision 4 Relative deviation is defined by the formula below.

Relative deviation =
Average deviation x Average value

100%

Consistency, Accuracy and Sensitivity

Consistency/Precision
Example 1 The diameter of an object was measured 5 times using vernier caliper. The results are 3.14 cm, 3.15 cm, 3.12 cm, 3.09 cm and 3.05 cm. Calculate the relative deviation.

3.14 3.15 3.12 3.09 3.05 Average diameter = 5 = 3.11 cm

Consistency, Accuracy and Sensitivity

Example 1:

Diameter/cm
3.14 3.15 3.12 3.09

Deviation/cm
(3.14 3.11) cm = 0.03 cm (3.15 3.11) cm = 0.04 cm (3.12 3.11) cm = 0.01 cm (3.09 3.11) cm = | 0.02 cm| = 0.02 cm (3.05 3.11) cm = | 0.06 cm| = 0.06 cm

3.05

Consistency, Accuracy and Sensitivity

Example 1: Mean deviation = 0.03 0.04 0.01 0.02 0.06 5 Relative deviation = =
Average deviation x 100% Average value

= 0.03 cm

0.03 3.11

x 100%

= 0.96%

Consistency, Accuracy and Sensitivity

Consistency/Precision
improved by: (a) eliminating parallax errors during measurement.

5 The consistency of a measuring instrument can be

Consistency, Accuracy and Sensitivity

Consistency/Precision
improved by: (b) exercising greater care and effort when taking readings.

5 The consistency of a measuring instrument can be

Consistency, Accuracy and Sensitivity

Consistency/Precision
improved by: (c) using an instrument which is not defective.

5 The consistency of a measuring instrument can be

Consistency, Accuracy and Sensitivity

Accuracy 1 Accuracy is the degree to which a measurement represents the actual value.
Gravity = 9.81 ms-2 Experimental value A = 9.76 ms-2 B = 9.62 ms-2

9.62

9.76 9.81

Consistency, Accuracy and Sensitivity

Accuracy 2 An accurate instrument is able to give readings close to or almost equal to the actual value of a quantity.

9.62

9.76 9.81 Closer

Consistency, Accuracy and Sensitivity

Accuracy 3 An instrument with 100% accuracy does not exist.

Consistency, Accuracy and Sensitivity

Accuracy 4 The error is the difference between the measured value and the actual or true value
9.62 A.9.76 9.81

Error A = 0.05

Consistency, Accuracy and Sensitivity

Accuracy 5 The level of accuracy is related to the relative error which is defined as the ratio of the error to the actual value. error value Relative error = x 100% actual value
B.9.62 A.9.76 9.81
Error A = 0.05 Error B = 0.19

R. Error A =
R. Error B =

0.05 x100% 9.81

=0.5%

0.19 x100% =1.9% 9.81

Consistency, Accuracy and Sensitivity

6 A measured value with a very small error has a high accuracy. If the relative error is of a small value, the level of accuracy is high and vice versa.

Relative error Accuracy

R. Error A =
0.05 x100% 9.81

=0.5%

Accuracy high

R. Error B =

0.19 x100% =1.9% 9.81

Consistency, Accuracy and Sensitivity

Accuracy
7 How to improve the accuracy of a measurement? (a) Repeated readings are taken and the average value is calculated.

Consistency, Accuracy and Sensitivity

Accuracy 7 How to improve the accuracy of a measurement? (b) Avoid parallax errors,

Consistency, Accuracy and Sensitivity

Accuracy 7 How to improve the accuracy of a measurement? (c) Avoid zero errors.

Consistency, Accuracy and Sensitivity

Accuracy 7 How to improve the accuracy of a measurement? (d) Use measuring instruments with a higher accuracy. For example, a vernier caliper is more accurate than a ruler.

Consistency, Accuracy and Sensitivity

Sensitivity 1 The sensitivity of a measuring instrument is its ability to detect quickly a small change in the value of a measurement.

Consistency, Accuracy and Sensitivity

Sensitivity 2 A measuring instrument that has a scale with smaller divisions is more sensitive.

Consistency, Accuracy and Sensitivity

Sensitivity
3 As an example, the length of a piece of wire is measured with rulers A and B which have scales graduated in intervals of 0.1 cm and 0.5 cm respectively, as shown in Figure 1.5. Which of the rulers is more sensitive?

Consistency, Accuracy and Sensitivity

Sensitivity
3 Results: Ruler A: Length = 4.8 cm Ruler B: Length = 4.5 cm Ruler A is more sensitive as it can measure to an accuracy of 0.1 cm compared to 0.5 cm for ruler B

Consistency, Accuracy and Sensitivity

4 In addition to the size of the divisions on the scale of the instrument, the design of the instrument has an effect on the sensitivity of the instrument. For example, a thermometer has a higher sensitivity if it can detect small temperature variations. A thermometer with a narrow capillary and a thin-walled bulb has a higher sensitivity.

Consistency, Accuracy and Sensitivity

Comparisons between Consistency, Accuracy, and Sensitivity

1 The drawings in Figure 1.5, which show the distribution of gunshots fired at a target board, serve to illustrate the meaning of consistency and accuracy.

Consistency, Accuracy and Sensitivity

2 A consistent measuring instrument is not necessarily accurate. For example, a measurement with a metre rule is consistent but not accurate due to end errors. In this respect, this type of instrument gives readings which, however, do not represent the true value of the measured quantity.

Consistency, Accuracy and Sensitivity

3 A sensitive measuring instrument too, may not be accurate or consistent. This is due to external variations which cause variations in the readings.