A Classification of Scaling Techniques

Scaling Techniques Comparative Scales Noncomparati ve Scales

Paired Rank Constant Q-Sort and Continuous Itemized Rating Scales Rating Comparison Order Sum Other Scales Procedures Like rt Semantic Differential Stape l

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A Comparison of Scaling Techniques

Comparative scales involve the direct

comparison of stimulus objects. Comparative scale data must be interpreted in relative terms and have only ordinal or rank order properties.

In noncomparative scales, each object is

scaled independently of the others in the stimulus set. The resulting data are generally assumed to be interval or ratio 5/5/12 scaled.

Relative Advantages of Comparative Scales

Small differences between stimulus

objects can be detected. respondents.

Same known reference points for all Easily understood and can be applied. Involve fewer theoretical assumptions. Tend to reduce halo or carryover effects

from one judgment to another.

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Relative Disadvantages of Comparative Scales

Ordinal nature of the data Inability to generalize beyond the

stimulus objects scaled.

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Comparative Scaling Techniques: Paired Comparison A respondent is presented with two objects and Scaling one according to some criterion. asked to select
The data obtained are ordinal in nature. Paired comparison scaling is the most widely

used comparative scaling technique. are required.

With n brands, [n(n - 1) /2] paired comparisons

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Obtaining Shampoo Preferences Using Paired going to present you with ten pairs of Comparisons Instructions: We are
shampoo brands. For each pair, please indicate which one of the two brands of shampoo you would prefer for personal use. Recording Form:

aA 1 in a particular box means that the brand in that column was preferred over the brand in the corresponding row. A 0 means that the row brand was preferred over the column brand. bThe number of times a brand was preferred is obtained by summing the 1s in each column.

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Paired Comparison Selling The most common method of taste testing

is paired comparison. The consumer is asked to sample two different products and select the one with the most appealing taste. The test is done in private and a minimum of 1,000 responses is considered an adequate sample. A blind taste test for a soft drink, where imagery, self-perception and brand reputation are very important factors in the consumers purchasing decision, may not be a good indicator of performance in the marketplace. The introduction of New Coke illustrates this point. New Coke was heavily favored in blind paired comparison taste tests, but its introduction was less than successful, because image plays a major role in the purchase of Coke.

A 5/5/12 comparison taste test paired

Comparative Scaling Techniques Rank Order Scaling

Respondents are presented with several objects simultaneously and asked to order or rank them according to some criterion. the brand ranked 1 in an absolute sense. in ordinal data.

It is possible that the respondent may dislike Furthermore, rank order scaling also results Only (n - 1) scaling decisions need be made
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in rank order scaling.

Instructions: Rank the various brands of toothpaste in order of preference. Begin by picking out the one brand that you like most and assign it a number 1. Then find the second most preferred brand and assign it a number 2. Continue this procedure until you have ranked all the brands of toothpaste in order of preference. The least preferred brand should be assigned a rank of 10. No two brands number. should receive the same rank

The criterion of preference is entirely up to you.

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Preference for Toothpaste Brands Using Rank Order Scaling Form

Brand 2. Colgate 3. Vicco 4. Himalaya 5. Sensodyne Rank Order _________ _________ _________ _________ 1. Babool_________

6. Aquafresh _________ 7. Close Up 8. Pepsodent 9. Miswak 10. Emoform _________ _________ _________ _________

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Scale in which the respondent compares

one item with another or a group of items against each other and ranks them

Packa ging C Flavor A Size B

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Packa ging B Flavor C Size A

Packa ging B Flavor B Size C

Comparative Scaling Techniques Constant Sumconstant sum of Respondents allocate a Scaling

assigns it zero points.

units, such as 100 points to attributes of a product to reflect their importance.

If an attribute is unimportant, the respondent If an attribute is twice as important as some

other attribute, it receives twice as many points.

The sum of all the points is 100. Hence, the

name 5/5/12

of the scale.

Instructions Please allocate 100 points among the attributes so that your allocation reflects the relative importance you attach to each attribute. The more points an attribute receives, the more important the attribute is. If an attribute is not at all important, assign it zero points. If an attribute is twice as important as some other attribute, it should receive twice as many points.

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Constant Sum Scale

Respondents allocate a fixed number of

rating points among several objects to reflect relative preference

Divide 100 points among the following attributes of a PC Clock Speed: 30 Hard drive size: 20 RAM size: 10 Price: 40
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Importance of Bathing Soap Attributes Using a Constant Sum Scale Form Average Responses of Three Segments
Segment II Segment III 8 1. Mildness 2 2. Lather 3 3. Shrinkage 5 4. Price 39 5. Fragrance 7 6. Packaging 7. Moisturizing 5 1 8. Cleaning Power Sum 10 3
0
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Attribute

Segment I
4 1 7 7 9 1 99 2 1 0 10 5 0

2 4 9 1 70 5 3 6 10 0 0

Non-comparative Scaling Techniques

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Non-comparative Scaling Techniques

Respondents evaluate only one object at a time,

and for this reason non-comparative scales are often referred to as monadic scales. and itemized rating scales.

Non-comparative techniques consist of continuous

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Continuous Rating Scale

Respondents rate the objects by placing a mark at the appropriate position on a line that runs from one extreme of the criterion variable to the other. The form of the continuous scale may vary considerably.
How would you rate ----------- as a department store? Version 1 Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Probably the best Version 2 Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --Probably the 5/5/12 best

Itemized Rating Scales

The respondents are provided with a scale that

has a number or brief description associated with each category. position, and the respondents are required to select the specified category that best describes the object being rated. Likert, semantic differential, and Stapel scales.

The categories are ordered in terms of scale

The commonly used itemized rating scales are the

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Likert Scale Semantic Differential Scale Stapel Scale

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Likert Scale
Requires respondent to indicate degree of

agreement or disagreement with a variety of statements related to the attitude object Typically used for intangible constructs. Each item (statement) measures some aspect of the common construct. Scores on individual items are summed to give total score for respondents

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Likert Scale
The Likert scale requires the respondents to indicate a degree of agreement or disagreement with each of a series of statements about the stimulus objects.
Strongly Disagree Neither disagree agree nor disagree 1. --------sells high quality merchandise. 2. --------- has poor in-store service. 1 3. 5/5/12 shop at ----------------. I like to 1 2 3X 4 5 2X 3 4 5 1 2X 3 4 5 Agree Strongly agree

Likert Scale
Satisfaction survey for a bank:
Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree

1. The bank offers courteous service 2. The bank has convenient locations 3. The bank has convenient hours 4. The bank offers low interest rate loans Together, the 4 items 5/5/12 constitute the

This is a single item

Balanced and Unbalanced Scales

Balance Jovan Musk for Men is: d Scale Extremely good
good Bad Very bad Extremely bad
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Unbalance Jovan Musk for Men is: d Scale Extremely good Very
Very good Good Somewhat good Bad Very bad Good

Some Commonly Used Scales in Marketing

CONSTRUCT
Attitude Importance Satisfaction Purchase Intent Purchase Freq Very Bad Not all All Important Very Dissatisfied Definitely will Not Buy Never Bad

SCALE DESCRIPTORS
Neither Bad Nor Good Neutral Neither Dissat Nor Satisfied Might or Might Not Buy Sometimes Probably Will Buy Often Definitely Will Buy Very Often Good Important Satisfied Very Good Very Important Very Satisfied

Not Important Dissatisfied Probably Will Not Buy Rarely

Semantic Differential Scale

Respondents rate each attribute object on a

number of five or seven-point rating scales bounded by polar adjectives or phrases With bipolar scale, the midpoint is a neutral point Used for image analysis, profile analysis

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The semantic differential is a seven-point rating scale with end points associated with bipolar labels that have semantic meaning. --------- IS: Powerful --:--:--:--:-X-:--:--: Weak Unreliable Modern

Semantic Differential Scale

--:--:--:--:--:-X-:--: Reliable

--:--:--:--:--:--:-X-: Old-fashioned

The negative adjective or phrase sometimes appears at the left side of the scale and sometimes at the right. This controls the tendency of some respondents, particularly those with very positive or very negative 5/5/12 attitudes, to mark the right- or left-hand sides without

Characteristics of Semantic Differential

Pairs of objects or phrases must be

meaningful in market being studied and often correspond to product/service attributes Place negative pole on either side Category increments are treated as interval scales so group mean values can be computed for each object on each scale
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Characteristics of Semantic Differential (Contd.)

Application of semantic differential scale Plot mean ratings of each object on each

scale for visual comparison Overall comparison of brands hard to grasp with many brands and attributes Not all attributes are independent

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A Semantic Differential Scale for Measuring Self- Concepts, Person Concepts, and Product Concepts
1) Rugged 2) Excitable

:---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Delicate :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Calm

3) Uncomfortable :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Comfortable 4) Dominating :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Submissive 5) Thrifty :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Indulgent 6) Pleasant :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Unpleasant

7) Contemporary :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Obsolete 8) Organized 5/5/12 Unorganized :---:---:---:---:---:---:---:

Scale Configurations
1) Very harsh 2) Very harsh --1 ----2 3 --4 --5 --6 --7 Very gentle Very gentle

Tide detergent is:

3) . Very harsh . . . Neither harsh nor gentle Tide . . . Very gentle 4) ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ Very Harsh Somewhat Neither harsh Somewhat harsh harsh nor gentle gentle 5) Very harsh -3

____ ____ Gentle Very gentle

-2

Neither harsh nor -1 gentle

Very

+1

gentle +2

+3

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Stapel Scale

The Stapel scale is a unipolar rating scale with ten categories numbered from -5 to +5, without a neutral point (zero). This scale is usually presented vertically.

------------------ +5 +4 +3 +2 +1 HIGH QUALITY 5/5/12 +5 +4 +3 +2X +1 POOR SERVICE

Basic Non-comparative Scales

Sc ale
Place a mark on Continuo continuous a Rati us line Sc ng al Itemized Rating Scales e

Bas Characterist ic ics

Exampl es
Reaction T to commerci V als

Advanta ges
Easy to construct

Disadvanta ges
Scoring can cumberso be unle me computeri ss zed

Likert Scale

Seman Different tic ial Sta Sc pel al e

Degrees agreement on a of (strongly 1 to 5 (strongly disagree) sc agree) al Se - point e with ve bipolar scale labels n Unipolar - poi sca ten - 5 to nt wi a le, ut +5, point neutral th (zero) o

Measureme of nt attitudes

Easy to administer, construct, underst and and Versa tile

More ti - consum m ing e Controversy to as whether data the are interval Confusing difficult to and apply

Bran product, d, compa and ima ny ges Measureme of nt and attitudes images

Easy to administer construct, teleph over one

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Summary of Itemized Scale Decisions

1) Number of categories Although there is no single, optimal number, traditional guidelines suggest that there should be between five and nine categories 2) Balanced vs. unbalanced balanced to obtain objective data In general, the scale should be

3) Odd/even no. of categories If a neutral or indifferent scale response is possible for at least some respondents, an odd number of categories should be used 4) Forced vs. non-forced In situations where the respondents are expected to have no opinion, the accuracy of the data may be improved by a non-forced scale 5) Verbal description 5/5/12 or An argument can be made for labeling all

Some Unique Rating Scale Configurations Thermometer Scale

Instructions: Please indicate how much you like McDonalds hamburgers by coloring in the thermometer. Start at the bottom and color up to the temperature level that best indicates how strong your preference is. Form: Like very 100 75 50 much
25 0

Smiling Face Scale Instructions: Please point to the face that shows how much you like the Barbie Doll. If you do not like the Barbie Doll at all, you would point to Face 1. If you liked it very much, you would point to Face 5. Form: 1
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Dislike very much

Development of a Multiitem Scale

Fig. 9.4
Develop Theory Generate Initial Pool of Items: Theory, Secondary Data, and Qualitative Research Select a Reduced Set of Items Based on Qualitative Judgment Collect Data from a Large Pretest Sample Statistical Analysis Develop Purified Scale Collect More Data from a Different Sample Evaluate Scale Reliability, Validity, and Generalizability Final Scale

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Scale Evaluation
Scale Evaluation Reliability Test/ Alternativ Retest e Forms Internal Conten Consistenc t y Validity Generalizability

Criterion Construct

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Convergent Discriminant Nomologic

Measurement Accuracy

The true score model provides a framework for understanding the accuracy of measurement. XO = XT + XS + XR where XO = the observed score or measurement
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XT = the true score of the characteristic

Potential Sources of Error on Measurement

1) Other relatively stable characteristics of the individual that influence the test score, such as intelligence, social desirability, and education. 2) Short-term or transient personal factors, such as health, emotions, and fatigue. 3) Situational factors, such as the presence of other people, noise, and distractions. 4) Sampling of items included in the scale: addition, deletion, or changes in the scale items. 5) Lack of clarity of the scale, including the instructions or the items themselves. 6) Mechanical factors, such as poor printing, overcrowding items in the questionnaire, and poor design. 7) Administration of the scale, such as differences among interviewers. 8) Analysis factors, such as differences in scoring and statistical analysis. 5/5/12

Reliability
Reliability can be defined as the extent to

which measures are free from random error, XR. If XR = 0, the measure is perfectly reliable.
In test-retest reliability, respondents are

administered identical sets of scale items at two different times and the degree of similarity between the two measurements is determined.

In alternative-forms reliability, two

equivalent forms of the scale are constructed and the same respondents are measured at two different times, with a different form being used 5/5/12 time. each

Reliability
Internal consistency reliability determines

the extent to which different parts of a summated scale are consistent in what they indicate about the characteristic being measured.

In split-half reliability, the items on the scale

are divided into two halves and the resulting half scores are correlated.

The coefficient alpha, or Cronbach's alpha, is

the average of all possible split-half coefficients resulting from different ways of splitting the 5/5/12 scale items. This coefficient varies from 0 to 1,

Validity
The validity of a scale may be defined as the

extent to which differences in observed scale scores reflect true differences among objects on the characteristic being measured, rather than systematic or random error. Perfect validity requires that there be no measurement error (XO = XT, XR = 0, XS = 0). evaluation of how well the content of a scale represents the measurement task at hand. performs as expected in relation to other 5/5/12 variables selected (criterion variables) as

Content validity is a subjective but systematic

Criterion validity reflects whether a scale

Validity
Construct validity addresses the question of

what construct or characteristic the scale is, in fact, measuring. Construct validity includes convergent, discriminant, and nomological validity. scale correlates positively with other measures of the same construct. measure does not correlate with other constructs from which it is supposed to differ.

Convergent validity is the extent to which the

Discriminant validity is the extent to which a

5/5/12 Nomological validity is the extent to which

If a measure is perfectly valid, it is also perfectly

Relationship Between Reliability & Validity

reliable. In this case XO = XT, XR = 0, and XS = 0. valid, since at a minimum XO = XT + XR. Furthermore, systematic error may also be present, i.e., XS0. Thus, unreliability implies invalidity.

If a measure is unreliable, it cannot be perfectly

If a measure is perfectly reliable, it may or may

not be perfectly valid, because systematic error 5/5/12 may still be present (XO = XT + XS).

Thank You