Week 4: The social construction of gender

Susanne Y P Choi

The social construction of gender Symbolic interactionism

stimulus interpretation response Gender display (Goffman, 1976, 1977)

Gender identity is accomplished through gender display in ongoing social interactions. Gender as a routine accomplishment embedded in everyday interaction (West and Zimmerman 1987)

Doing Gender

Theoretical background

Theoretical background of social constructionist view of gender (symbolic interactionism, ethnomethodology) Critique of macro theories of being too deterministic Functionalism Actors internalize norms out of desire for group membership Neo-Marxism (conflict theory) Actors developing social, political, and ideological characteristics as a result of his/her class membership

The nature of social life Positivism (influenced functionalism) Out there to be discovered/patterned and has order/ stable Interpretative sociology (influenced Symbolic Interactionism) Social life exists as people experience it and give it meaning (agency & subjectivity) Social interaction is the foundation of all understanding of society (Adler & Adler, 1987:219) Reflexivity: People are shaped by interaction as well as instrumental in shaping the character of interaction. Interaction is both voluntaristic () and structured () (Adler & Adler, 1987:219).

Symbolic interactionism

The term symbolic interaction refersto the peculiar and distinctive character of interaction as it takes place between human beingsHuman beings interpret or define each others actions instead of merely reacting to each other actions. Their response is not made directly to the actions of one another but instead is based on the meaning which they attach to such actions. Thus human interaction is mediated by the use of symbols, by interpretation, or by ascertaining the meaning of one anothers actions. This mediation is equivalent to inserting a process of interpretation between stimulus and response in the case of human behavior (Blumer,

Core principles of the theory

Meaning (defining the situation)

humans act toward people and things based upon the meanings that they have given to those people or things

Language (symbols)
Language gives humans a means by which to negotiate meaning through symbols.

Thought (perceptions, beliefs, feelings etc)

Thought modifies each individual's interpretation of symbols.

Goffman - Gender Display

Goffman, E. 1976. Gender advertisements. The Society for the Anthropology of Visual Communication. Goffman, E. 1977. The arrangement between the Sexes. Theory and Society, 4:301-331. Questions addressed:
How is our gender identity (the gendered self) formed?
Gender identity is accomplished through gender display in ongoing social interactions.

Social classification
Sorting process Two sex-classes

Gender identity
Sex (biological character) Sex-class (social classification of all people into one of the two sex-classes, male and female) Gender
Social conceptions of attributes associated with the two sex classes Ideals of masculinity and femininity

Gender identity

Insofar as the individual builds up a sense of who and what he is by referring to his sex class and judging himself in terms of the ideals of masculinity (or femininity) one may speak of gender identity (Goffman, 1977:304).

Claiming membership +attach perception of self to whether he/she could live up to social expectations associated with attributes assigned to the social category

Self identification by referring to the sex-class classification

Who am I? I am a man (or woman) Judging oneself in terms of the ideals of masculinity (or femininity) What am I supposed to be? Masculine (or feminine)

In symbolic interactionism, the self is created through social interactions. It is not a fixed and inflexible self, but one that is constantly adjusting to others. The concern is with how the self develops. In Goffman, the self has two senses
as image, deriving from the perceptions and responses of others that create the face of the person (impression); the actor as a player in a game or set of rituals (management).

The self

Strategic management of the self

Individual capacity and inclination to portray a version of themselves and their relationships at strategic moments a working agreement to present each other with, and facilitate the others presentation of, gestural pictures of the claimed reality of their relationship and the claimed character of their human nature. (Goffman, 1976:8)

Ideals of masculinity and femininity

Different Complementary () Femininity

Lesser being but idealized ()

Lack of strength and vigor, incompetence, lack of ambition, irrational, emotional, Fragile () and valuable, precious (), to be protected from the harsher things of life and shown both love and respect

Women may be defined as being less than men, but they are nonetheless idealized, mythologized (), in a serious way through such values as motherhood, innocence, gentleness, sexual attractiveness, and so forth a lesser pantheon (), perhaps, but a pantheon nonetheless. (Goffman, 1977:308)

Ceremonies ()

Gender display

Rituals () Behaviors ()

E.g. engagement party, wedding, birthday party etc. Proposing, kneeling down, flower giving, exchanging rings, cake cutting, wine drinking, kissing Open the door, lift the chair, give way, step forward, lead, follow, pay the bill, carry handbags Formalized (), (formularization), simplified, exaggerated, and stereotyped behaviors (therefore expected) .

Ritualized behaviors ()

Gender display

In social interactions between persons of the two sex-classes in certain cultures, the male is expected to open the door, life the chair, give way, step forward, lead, and pay the bill, carry handbags for the female (could all types of behavior be ritualized for gender display?)

Identificatory styling Ritualized behaviors to convey the ideals of masculinity and femininity, the claimed gendered self

Men carry the handbag for women to display muscular strength, protectionwomen accept offer to show fragileness

Examples of gender display () the courtship game

Routinely, courtship means that:

male making advances ( (pursue) (request)), pursue the female with attentions sending flowers, giving presents, dinner invitations, organizing activities, paying bills, carrying handbags, opening the door, pulling the chair female controlling access to her (sexual) favors Power to lengthen or shorten the pursuit Pretending, playing nave, not responding, holding, gatekeeping Refrain from being forward () or risk being viewed as easily accessible The longer it takes for him to succeed, the more valuable she is Male defining such (exclusive) access as evidence of his capacity as a male Female bestow her final favors on only one person upon his commitment of supporting her. Courtship provide one expression of the high value placed on women Courtship provide an occasion for the confirmation of masculinity

Another example of gender display

The courtesy system ()

The belief of fragile females

The obligation of males to step in and help whenever a woman is threatened By performing these courtesy obligations, males confirm his masculinity Courtesy provides males an opportunity to approach females that he is sexually interested By the display of fragility, fear and incompetence, a female provides an opportunity for a male (in whom she may be interested) to extend his helping hand (without risk of being too seen as too forward)

Courtesy is closely linked with courtship

Arrangements of the sexes

The structure in Goffmans analysis?

Norms (ideals of masculinity and femininity, sex and age grade related marital norms etc) Social arrangements

Facilitate the differential treatments of the sexes that are supposed to be attributable to their biological differences Provide settings for the constant display of gender

Parallel organization Sex-class division of labor Toilet segregation Looks and job selection Identification system Sport/military training and recruitment etc.

Confirmation of gender

Masculinity needs constant confirmation Dominance is affirmed through the performance of who decides, who leads, who follows, who pay etc. Physical strength is confirmed through offering of protection, help, services, violence, and coercion Virility (, , ) is affirmed through the successfully gaining access to the most desirable woman Femininity needs constant confirmation Femininity is affirmed by acting in a retiring manner, projecting shyness, reserve, display of fragility, fear and incompetence, withholding sexual access

Masculinity and femininity needs constant affirmation because

There is no a essential, fixed, stable masculine self or a feminine self, but a self who constantly displays masculinity and femininity in social interaction
what the human nature of males and females really consists of, then, is a capacity to learn to provide and to read depictions of masculinity and femininity and a willingness to adhere to a schedule for presenting these pictures, and this capacity they have by virtue of being persons, not females or males. One might just as well say there is no gender identity. There is only a schedule for the portrayal of gender. (Goffman, 1976:8)

In sum, although conceptually we can distinguish gender identity from gender display, but in reality, gender display is more than a ritualistic expression of gender identity, it constitutes () the identity, it is the shadow and the substance () of gender identity.

In any particular social gathering at any particular moment, the effect of thismay seem slightHowever, routinely the question is that of whose opinion is voiced most frequently and most forcibly, who makes the minor ongoing decisions apparently required for the coordination of any joint activity, and whose passing concerns are given the most weight. An however trivial some of these little gains and losses may appear to be, by summing them all up across all the social situations in which they occur, one can see that their total effect is enormous. The expression of subordination and domination through this swarm of situational means is more than a mere tracing or symbol or ritualistic affirmation (or expression1) of the social hierarchy. These expressions considerably constitute () the hierarchy; they are the shadow and the substance ( ). (Goffman, 1976:6) 1words inserted by me.

Structure and agency

Areas of mutual monitoring Social situations to social structure It is through social interactions that the resources, norms, and rules of social structures are mobilized, expressed, and enacted, and the constraining and enabling properties of social structure are felt and managed. Social structure is constituted through social interactions Social situations to individuals It is in social interactions that individuals depict their place in the wider social frame (Goffman, 1976:6) It is in social interactions that individuals signify what he takes to be his social identity and here indicates his feelings and intent (Goffman, 1976:6)

Political implications

Rather than individual characteristics, gender emerges from interactions Mutuality

Require a performer and an audience

Complementary
Both displays are necessarily for the enactment of gender (protection must be reciprocated by the showing of respect)

Complementary and mutual exclusion

Its contradictory consequences Femininity is defined as refraining from doing what are regarded as expressions of manliness Masculinity is defined as refraining from doing what are regarded as expression of womanliness

Doingaccomplishment embedded in everday interaction (West Gender Gender as routine

and Zemmerman 1987). Sex
Socially agreed upon biological criteria for classification as a member of the two sexes (p.131) The moral certainty that there are only and should only be two sex categories: the female and the male.

Sex category

The presumption that essential criteria exist and would or should be there if looked for that provides the basis for sex categorization. Neither initial sex assignment nor the actual existence of essential criteria for that assignment has much if anything to do with the identification of sex category in everyday life (p.132) Identification and claiming of the categorical status depends more on appropriate indentificatory displays (did not define what are indentificatory displays) Sex categorization as a cultural rather than biological event. Ideal conception of femininity and masculinity

(can this completely explain why it is so important for us to claim a sex category membership?)

Gender

What are the implications of sex, sex categorization and gender?

Gender is not natural. Sex categorization is not natural but cultural. It depends on the management of identificatory displays (e.g. body, clothing styles etc.)

Gender accountability

Gender accountability
Members of society regularly engage in descriptive accountings of states of affairs to one another, and such accounts are both serious and consequentialif sex category is omnirelevant, then a person engaged in virtually any activity may be held accountable for performance of that activity as a woman or a man, and their incumbency in one or the other sex category can be used to legitimate or discredit their other activities (p.136) Virtually any activity can be assessed as to its womanly or manly nature (Is the activity itself be assessed or the actor herself/himself being assessed? Or Both)

Doing gender

To do gender is not always to live up to normative conceptions of femininity or masculinity; it is to engage in behavior at the risk of gender assessment (p.136).
Unclear things about this formulation:

Is to do gender for claiming membership in a particular sex category and also to live up to normative conceptions of femininity or masculinity, or both? If sex category is omnirelevant, does it mean that whatever we do, we are doing gender? Does it mean that regardless of the social circumstances, with whom we are interacting, when, where and why we are interacting, we are always simultaneously doing gender?

Discussion

To what extent is the concept of doing gender similar to and different from the concept of gender display? How can gender be undo? How do the conceptualizations of gender display and doing gender differ from that of sex role socialization?

Goffman Erving. 1977. The Arrangement between the Sexes . Theory & Society 4:301-331. West Candace & Zimmerman Don H. 1987. Doing Gender. Gender & Society 1:125-151.

References