SECTION 1 Introduce wireless Networks

Section Introduction: Evolution of Wireless Technology. 1G to 2G Networks. 2G to 2.5G Networks.

Evolution of Wireless technologies.

Cellular systems have come a long way since their introduction in 1980s. The initial generation was First generation systems(1G). The 1G systems introduced the cellular concept in which multiple antennas are used to serve an area called a cell. One distinguishing factor of the IG systems is that they make use of Analogsystems. As such they were best suited for voice as data communications are very cumbersome. The migration from 1G towards 2G began in early 1990s.

1G Towards 2G
The primary motivation for the migration was increased system capacity. This was achieved by using more efficient digital radio techniques that enabled the transmission of digitized compress speech signals. Voice was the primary service for 2G systems even though low-data rate was supported. Limitations of 2G systems: 1.Bandwidth Limitations: 2.Capacity limitations. 3.Limited support for packet data. 4.Limited roaming capability.

2G
GSM phase-1

2.5G
GPRS

3G
CDMA 2000-IX

GSM phase-2

EDGE

UMTS

IS-95-A

W-CDMA

IS95-B

CDMA 2000

SECTION 2 Frequency Allocations

Section Introduction: Frequency Bands for GSM & CDMA. CDMA Specification. CDMA Cellular spectrum.

Frequency Allocation for GSM&CDMA

World wide GSM bands
GSM-900 MHZ 890-915 935-960 Extended GSM MHZ 880-915 925-960 DCS 1800 MHZ 1710-1785 1805-1880 PCS 1900 MHZ 1850-1910 1930-1990

Direction Uplink Downlink

World wide CDMA 2000 bands Direction Band Class-0 Band class-1 Uplink Downlink MHZ 824-849 869-894 MHZ 1850-1910 1930-1990 Band classBans class-10 4 MHZ MHZ 1750-1780 806-824 1840-1870 896-901

Reliance

CDMA Specifications

The system bandwidth is 25 MHZ The Duplex distance is 45 MHZ Carrier seperation is 1.25 MHZ We are using 41 AMPS channel each of which is 30KHZ

Frequency Allocation Method

R.L=825+0.03*n F.L=870+0.03*n Where n is the channel number

GSM900 Specifications

The system bandwidth is 25 MHZ. The Duplex distance is 45 MHZ. Carrier seperation is 200 KHZ.

The 25 MHZ band is divided using a FDMA scheme into 125 carrier frequencies spaced from each other by 200khz.The first carrier frequency is generally used as a guard band between GSM and other services working on lower frequencies. Each frequency is further divided into 8 timeslots using TDMA.

CDMA Cellular Spectrum

824 MHz A A 835 MHz B 845 MHz A 849 MHz B

Reverse link

825 MHz

846.5 MHz

869 MHz A A

880 MHz B

890 MHz A

894 MHz B

Forward link

870 MHz

891.5 MHz

SECTION 3 Introduction to CDMA

Section Introduction:
Different Access methods. What is CDMA? What are the benefits? Frequency reuse. What is Spread spectrum? Processing gain. What do you mean by DSSS?

Different channel access methods

1.TDMA: User gets access to the channel during a particular time slot. 2.FDMA: Each user has his own private frequency. 3.CDMA:Every user uses the entire channel bandwidth but is separated from others by special codes.

What is CDMA?

CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access. It is a spread spectrum,digital technology which uses a wide band frequency for the transmission of narrow band signal. In CDMA each user is identified by a unique spread sequence, which is used o spread data over the wide band spectrum.

CDMA Concept
In GSM small time slots of the spectrum (200 kHz) are used by different users as channels.

824 MHz

849 MHz

869 MHz 894 MHz Cell Tx

Mobile Tx

User 1 User 2 User 3 User 4 User n

Code 1 Code 2 Code 3 Code 4 Code n

Spread spectrum uses much larger slice (1.25 MHz) of the available bandwidth. Same slice is used for all user with no time multiplexing but each user is assigns with a different code to uniquely identify them.

What are the benefits ?

Simplified frequency planning Variable rate vocoding Soft handoff Increased capacity Inherent Privacy Power control

Frequency Reuse

Use of allocated frequencies in surrounding cells is what is known as Frequency Reuse. This factor has an effect on the systems capacity and interference . The better you plan your frequency the better is your systems capacity.

CDMA uses frequency reuse factor =1.

GSM Vs CDMA

F5 F6 F1 F4 F3 F1 F1

F1 F1 F1 F1 F1

F7
F2

TYPICAL TDMA SYSTEM EACH CELL USES DIFFERENT FREQUENCY THE PATTERN IS REPEATED FOR THE NEXT SET OF CELL SITES

TYPICAL CDMA SYSTEM EACH CELL USES SAME FREQUENCY

What is Spread Spectrum ?

It is the technique by which a narrow base band signal

is converted into a wide band signal by multiplying the former with the latter. The wide band signal is a noise like code called PN sequence or the chip sequence. Spreading artificially increases the bandwidth

TYPES OF SPREAD SPECTRUM MODULATIONS

The types of spread spectrum modulation communication systems are classified as: commonly used in

Direct Sequence Frequency Hopping CDMA is a direct sequence system.

Direct Sequence In direct sequence modulation the information signal is modulated by a code having bit rate much larger than the t information signal.

Frequency Hopping The carrier frequency is shifted in discret increments in a pattern generated by a code sequence.It sends data packets at one carrier frequency,hop to another frequency,send some more data packets and so on.

DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM

A System is said to be using DSSS if it follows the two basic rules mentioned
The Bandwidth of the Carrier frequency must be much larger than the Bandwidth of the baseband Signals to be transmitted. The same codes that are used for coding the signal must also be used for decoding the signals.

PROCESSING GAIN
Processing Gain is a term common to all direct sequence spread spectrum systems. Process gain is defined as the ratio of the Chip Rate (Rc) to the information bit rate (Rb). This provides a measure of ``spreading'' in the system.

Processing Gain = Rc / Rb
Chip Rate (Rc): The Chip Rate is the rate at which the PN sequence is generated. For CDMA, IS95, the chip rate is 1.2288 * 10 ^ 6 cps (chips per second).
Bit Rate (Rb): The bit rate is base band user information (i.e. user voice/data) rate. In CDMA, voice is digitized at different rates depending on the speech activity level. The system parameters presented in this discussion are based on a maximum bite rate of 9.6 kbps and 14.4 kbps per IS95 For CDMA (IS95A/B): Ex.Rc = 1.2288 Mcps, Rb = 14.4 kbps (max), resulting in a Processing Gain of 85.33 (19.3 dB).

PROCESSING GAIN

The Processing Gain and Capacity Relation

Advantages of Spread Spectrum

Shares the same bandwidth with other users Provides privacy.

Low probability intercept(LPI) and Antijamming.

Low power spectral density since signal is spread over a large frequency band.

Spreading Codes Used Three codes are used in a particular sequence to create a unique robust signal at the transmitter viz.

A. Long Code B. Walsh Code C. PN Code

The reverse sequence is used to decode the signal at the receiver

CDMAs Nested Spreading Sequences

A) Long PN Code

This code is generated from a 42 bit shift register having 4.398*10(12) different codes.The code repeats itself after 41 days The chip rate is 1.22888Mcps. Long codes are used for data scrambling/encryption in forward link and spreading/encryption in the rev link

B) Walsh Codes
These are 64 bit orthogonal codes used to provide 64 channels within each frequency band Used for spreading in the forward link and also identifying users In the reverse link used to provide orthogonal modulation but not spreading. Generated by using Hadmard matrix of the form

Hn H2n= Hn

Hn Hn

Conditions for orthogonality

1. 2. 3.

The cross correlation of the two sequences should be zero or very small When Ex-Ored the result should have equal number of 1s and 0s The scaled dot product of the code should be equal to one

Orthogonal Sequences

Definition:
Orthogonal functions have zero correlation. Two binary sequences are orthogonal if the process of XORing them results in an equal number of 1s and 0s. Example: 0000 (XOR) 0101 -----0101

Walsh Codes
0000000000011111111122222222223333333333444444444455555555556666 0123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 6 6 6 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 ... 0 1 2 3

0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110 0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110

Orthogonal Spreading
1

0110011010011001100110010110011010011001011001100110011010011001

Walsh Function #59

1001100101100110011001101001100101100110100110011001100101100110

Pattern to be Transmitted

Decoding Using a Correct Code

Rx Data Correct Function 1001
0110 1111 1 +1

0110
0110 0000 0

0110
0110 0000 0

1001
0110 1111 1

1001
0110 1111 1

-1

Decoding Using a Incorrect Code

Rx Data Incorrect Function 1001
0101 1100 ?

0110
0101 0011 ?

0110
0101 0011 ?

1001
0101 1100 ?

1001
0101 1100 ?

Effect of mutipath delay on the users code is that a delay of one chip the code Is not orthogonal to other non-delayed codes which results in a mess

Example: Spreading
+1 -1 Spread Waveform Representation of User Bs signal +1 -1 +1 -1 Analog Signal Formed by the Summation of the Three Spread Signals +1 Spread Waveform Representation of User Cs signal C=11 Walsh Code for C = 0000 B=10 Walsh Code for B = 0011 Spread Waveform Representation of User As signal A=00 Walsh Code for A = 0101

-3

Despreading
+1
Received Composite Signal

-3 +1 -1 +3 Product Walsh Code for User A = 0101

-1 Average=(5-1)/4=1 0 Average=(5-1)/4=1 0

CDMA AIR INTERFACE ARCHTECTURE

C ) PN Short Codes
These codes are generated from a pair of 15 bit shift register to give 32767 codes. Used for synchronization and cell identification in the forward link. The code repeat after every 26.67 milli- seconds at a clock rate of 1.2288Mcps. On the forward link the PN code is used for quadrature spreading.

PN code is also used by mobiles to identify the sectors.

On the reverse link PN code is used for tracking the mobile ,that means to calculate the path delay for the mobile.

PN Code Generation

PN Code Generation

Summary of Codes PN Long Code The Long Code is a PN sequence that is 2^42 1 bits (chips) long. It is generated at a rate of 1.2288 Mbps (or Mcps) giving it a period (time before the sequence repeats) of approximately 41.4 days. The long code is used to encrypt user information. Both the base station and the mobile unit have knowledge of this sequence at any given instant in time based on a specified private ``long code mask'' that is exchanged. PN Short Code The Short Code is a PN sequence that is 2 ^ 15 bits (chips) in length. This code is generated at 1.2288 Mbps (or Mcps) giving a period of 26.67 ms. This code is used for final spreading of the signal and is transmitted as a reference known as the ``Pilot Sequence'' by the base station. All base stations use the same short code. Base stations are differentiated from one another by transmitting the PN short code at different ``offsets'' in absolute. Walsh Codes CDMA defines a group of 64 orthogonal sequences, each 64 bits long, known as Walsh Codes. These sequences are also referred to as Wash Functions. These codes are generated at 1.2288 Mbps (Mcps) with a period of approximately 52 s. These are used to identify users on the forward link. For this reason they are also referred to as either Walsh Channels or TCH. All base stations and mobile users have knowledge of all Walsh codes.

FORWARD & REVERSE LINK CODES

SECTION 4 HOW CDMA WORKS

Section Introduction

Forward link Architecture Reverse Link Architecture Logical Channels on Forward Link Logical Channels on Reverse Link

CDMA FORWARD LINK ARCHITECTURE

CDMA Forward Link

Variable Low Bit Rate Speech Coding Transmit Path in Base Station
Variable Low Bit Rate Speech Decoding

Convolution encoding Bit Interleaving

Channel Decoding

Receive path in Mobile

Bit Deinterleaving

Encryption: Long Code Scrambling

Walsh Function Modulation

Decryption: Long Code Descrambling

Walsh Function Demodulation

Quadrature Spreading and Multiplexing

Quadrature Despreading

Quadrature Carrier Modulation RF Channel

Quadrature Carrier Demodulation

Vocoders
Human voice is coded to 64kbps using either PCM/ADPCM/DM. These techniques are not feasible in wireless application because there is limited bandwidth available. Transmission of 64Kbps of information over air requires far more bandwidth than can be afforded by the service providers. Vocoders provide attractive solution for the above problem. It exploits the characteristics of human speech and uses fewer bits to represent and replicate human speech.

CDMA Vocoders and Transmission rates

IS-95 specifies the use of two vocoders viz,the 9.6 and the 14.4Kbps vocoder. Reliance is using the 9.6Kbps(Rate set 1) vocoder while the 14.4Kbps is called the Rate set 2 vocoder. The RS-1 vocoder variably sets its output rate to 4.8,2.4, and 1.2Kbps depending upon the voice activity factor.(Generally v=50%). The rate decisions are taken after very 20ms(interval over which samples are Collected and processed. To bring the rate to 9.6Kbps the lower bit rate bits are repeated. For example the 1.2 Kbps bits are repeated 8 times to bring it to 9.6Kbps,but, the signal strength is reduced to 1/8th the power. Note that in CDMA we cannot send no signal because it takes a lot of time for the receiver to ramp up for new reception.

Channel coding and symbol repetition

After vocoding, redundancy needs to be added to the base band signal.

Channel coding is used to improve the systems performance against noise and fading.
In IS-95 system Convolution coding is used for error detection and correction of the signal. For additional redundancy bits are repeated.Eg(If we use rate1/2 Convolution coder then for every single bit 2 bits are generated.

Bit Interleaving

Convolution coding caters for errors resulting from noise and fades.

But during deep fades errors occur in bursts.

Interleaving is the technique for randomizing the bits in the message stream so that the burst errors introduced by the channel can be converted to random errors

INTERLEAVING IN FEC

Logical Channel

The physical channel that carry specific types of information are known as logical channels. Logical channels in CDMA are divided into two categories: Traffic Channels and Control Channels. For the forward link there are three types of Control/Signaling channels and one Traffic Channel (per user). For the Reverse Link there is one type Signaling Channel and one Traffic Channel per user. It is important to note that signals on the forward link are identified by Walsh codes, however, signals on the reverse link are identified by Long Codes.

AIR INTERFACE

Control Channels

Downlink

Uplink

Pilot

Sync

Paging

Access

CDMA IS-95 CHANNELS

Four RF

Forward Link Code Channels

The Forward Link Channels

The Forward Link comprises of the following logical channels. The Pilot Channel (Always uses Walsh code W0). The Paging Channel (Always uses Walsh code W1-W7). The Synchronization Channel (Always uses Walsh code W32)

The Traffic Channel.(Uses Walsh codes W8-W31 & W33-W63).

The Pilot Channel

The Pilot channel is: Transmitted all the times.

Uses Walsh code W0.

Provides phase and timing reference to the mobile terminal. Provides signal strength to the mobile for channel acquisition. Reused in every cell and sector with different PN offsets.

The Pilot Channel allows a mobile station to acquire the timing of the Forward Traffic Channel user information. It provides a phase reference for coherent demodulation and provides a means for signal strength comparisons between base stations, which is used to determine when to handoff. It consists of the un-modulated spreading sequences (PN short codes). The Pilot signal is transmitted continuously on Walsh 0 by each CDMA base station at the transmitter (cell/sector) level.

The Pilot channel

I Pilot PN sequence 1.2288 Mcps
Walsh W0

BB
To QPSK Modulator

All 0s

1.2288 Mcps

BB
Q Pilot PN sequence 1.2288 Mcps

The pilot signal is the effectively the PN sequence itself. Bit rate is 1.2288Mcps. 26.67 ms frame period, repeated 75 times a second. Pilot channels are kept at 4-6 dB higher then rest of the channels

The Sync Channel

The Sync Channel can be received by the mobile once it is locked to the pilot signal.
The Synchronization Channel is an encoded, interleaved and modulated spread spectrum signal that is used with the Pilot Channel to acquire initial system time and synchronization. The sync channel is always transmitted on Walsh 32.

The Sync Channel: Operates at 1200bps. Has a frame length of 26.666ms. Uses Walsh code W32. Provides timing info to the mobile for synchronization. Provides Pilot PN offset. Provides system time. Provides BS protocol revision level. Provides System and Network.

Sync Channel Frames

I Pilot PN sequence 1.2288 Mcps Walsh W32 Convolutional Encoder
Rate=1/2, K=9

BB
1.2288 Mcps

2.4 Ksps

Symbol Repetition

19.2 Ksps

Block Interleaver

19.2 Ksps

BB

Q Pilot PN sequence 1.2288 Mcps

The Sync Channel contains baseband information in the form of the sync message. At bit level the sync channel is transmitted in groups of sync channel super frames. Each super frame contains 96 bits and lasts 90ms. The Sync channel is spread by the same Pilot PN sequence hence once the mobile acquires sync with the pilot channel,the alignment for the Sync channel is immediately known.

The Paging Channel

The Paging Channel is: Used to page mobiles the system information. Has a bit rate of 9600 or 4800 bps. Uses Walsh codes W1-W7. Message transmitted include BS Lat-Long, power control thresholds,Neighbor lists, etc. Frame length is 80 ms A total of 2048 slots is called maximum slot cycle.
The Paging Channel is used for transmission of control information to the mobile. When a mobile is to receive a call it will receive a ``page'' from the base station. Up to seven (7) channels may be configured for paging depending on the expected demand. Page channel messaging to each user takes place in an 80 ms ``slot''. The 80 ms slots are grouped into cycles of 2048 slots (cycle duration 163.84 s) referred to as maximum slot cycles. The base station can limit the maximum slot cycle used by the mobile.

Paging Channel
Paging Channel Message Convolutional Encoder
4.8/ 9.6 Kbps
Rate=1/2, K=9

I Pilot PN 1.2288 Mcps

Symbol Repetition Block Interleaver
19.2 Ksps 64:1

9.6/ 19.2 Ksps

19.2 Ksps

Walsh W1-7

BB
1.2288 Mcps

Long-code Mask for Paging Channel

BB

Long Code Generator

1.2288 Mcps

Long Code Decimator

Q Pilot PN 1.2288 Mcps

Unlike sync channel paging channel transmits at higher rates. Although there are 7 paging channels each mobile monitors only One paging channel.

The Traffic Channel

Forward traffic channels are: Used to carry user data and voice traffic. Bit rates upto 9.6kbps and 14.4 kbps are possible. Frame length of 20ms. Uses Walsh codes W8-W31 & W33-W64. Can be used in two modes: 1. Blank and burst: Signaling data replaces speech data. 2. Dim and burst: Multiplexes signaling data with speech data
The Traffic Channel carries all the calls (voice or data signal) from a given base station to all the mobile units active in the coverage area or vice versa. Each user has a dedicated TCH, and corresponding Walsh code, on the down link. The forward traffic channel message consists of user voice (or data), power control data, and error correction bits. The message is transmitted as a series of traffic frames. The traffic channel may also carry signaling information with or in place of user voice (or data). A Walsh code is assigned by the base station for each Traffic Channel in use. The Traffic Channel for the reverse link is identical to the forward link Traffic Channel in function and structure. Each traffic channel is identified by a ``User Long PN Code'' which is unique to each CDMA user.

Forward Traffic Channel

Convolutional Encoder
Rate=1/2, K=9

Power Control Bits (800bps) Symbol Repetition Walsh Wn

I Pilot PN 1.2288 Mcps

BB
Block Interleaver Mux
19.2 Ksps 1.2288 Mcps

To QPSK Modulator

BB
24:1

1.2288 Mcps

64:1

Long Code Generator

Decimator

Decimator

Q Pilot PN 1.2288 Mcps

CDMA REVERSE LINK ARCHITECTURE

CDMA Reverse Link

Variable Low Bit Rate Speech Coding Variable Low Bit Rate Speech Decoding

Concolution Encoding

Channel Decoding

Transmit Path in Mobile

Bit Interleaving Bit Deinterleaving

Receive path in Base Station

64ary Orthogonal Walsh Symbol Modulation

64ary Orthogonal Walsh Symbol Demodulation

Encryption: Long Code Spreading

Decryption: Long Code Despreading

Quadrature Spreading

Demultiplexing and Quadrature Despreading

Quadrature Carrier Modulation RF Channel

Quadrature Carrier Demodulation

The Reverse link channels

The Reverse Link comprises of the following logical channels. Access channel Traffic channel

The Access Channel

This channel is used by the mobile to communicate to the BS when the MS is not assigned a traffic channel. Used to make call originations,respond to orders and pages. Data rate is fixed at 4.8Kbps. Information is transmitted in access channel slots and access channel frames.
The Access Channel is used for the transmission of control information to the base station. When a mobile is to place a call it uses the ``access'' channel to inform the base station. This channel is also used when responding to a ``page''. Each Access Channel is identified by a distinct ``Access Channel Long PN Code ''. An Access Channel is selected randomly by the mobile unit from the total number of access channels available from the serving cell/sector.

The Access Channel

Access Channel Message Convolutional Encoder
4.8 Kbps
Rate=1/3, K=9

14.4 Ksps

Symbol Repetition

28.8 Ksps

Block Interleaver

64-ary Orthogonal Modulator

1.2288 Mcps

I Pilot PN 1.2288 Mcps

BB
To QPSK Modulator

Long-code Mask

Long Code Generator

1.2288 Mcps

BB
Q Pilot PN 1.2288 Mcps

Reverse Traffic channel

Convolutional Encoder
RS1/ RS2
Rate=1/3, K=9

Symbol Repetition 28.8

Ksps

Block Interleaver

28.8 Ksps

I Pilot PN 1.2288 Mcps

BB
64-ary Orthogonal Modulator 4.8
Ksps

Data Burst Randomizer

1.2288 Mcps

To QPSK Modulator

BB
1.2288 Mcps

Long-code Mask

Long Code Generator

Q Pilot PN 1.2288 Mcps

SECTION 5 Power Control

Section Introduction: Why Power Control. Near Far Problem. Open Loop Power Control. Closed Loop Power Control. How Power control is achieved. Closed loop power control in soft handoff.

Why Power Control ?

All users share the same RF frequency through the use of PN codes.

Each user looks like random noise to other users.

The power of each individual user must therefore be controlled so that no one user is unnecessary interfering with others who are sharing the same band. It is of paramount importance that to have maximum efficiency the Power received at the BS must be nearly equal. If the power received is too low then many Bit errors will occur. If the power received is too high then , the level of interference will go up. Power control is implemented to over come the near-far problem and to maximize the capacity.

Near-Far Problem

Pt

D2 User 2
Pt

D1
User 1

With no power control both the users transmit fixed power Pt. BS receives more power from User 1 and less from User 2, since User 2 is far away from BS as compared to User 1. This means that the SNR 1 is far much higher than SNR 2. Hence User 1 is at a greater advantage than User 2

Open Loop Power Control

It is purely a mobile controlled operation and does not involve BS in it. The mobile senses the signal from the BS(pilot) and adjusts its power upon that. If the pilot strength is very strong the the mobile reduces its power and vice versa. The open-loop power control is based on the estimate of the forward path loss. It also assumes that the forward path loss is identical to the reverse path loss. This technique is inadequate and too slow to compensate for fast Rayleigh fading.

Closed Loop Power Control

Used to compensate power fluctuations due to fast Rayleigh fading. This process involves both the BS and the MS.

At the BS once the MS gets a traffic channel the closed loop power control operates along with the Open loop power control.
Ideally FER is a good indicator of the link quality.But the BS takes long time to accumulate enough bits to calculate the FER.Eb/No is used for the same. In closed loop power control at BS: 1.If Eb/No on the reverse link is too high then BS tells the MS to lower down its power . 2.If Eb/No on the reverse link is too small then the BS tells the MS to increase its power. In open loop power control at BS :the BS decreases its power level gradually and waits to hear from the mobile what is the corresponding FER /Eb/No and take corresponding action

How Power control is achieved.

Analog voice 9.6 kbps 19.2 kbps 19.2 kbps spreading

vocoder

Conv Coder k=1/2

Mux

PN long code

decimator

PCBs at 800 bps.

The BS sends the power control commands to MS on the forward link. The commands are in the form of power control groups (PCGs).

The PCGs are directly sent over the traffic channel to quickly over come the fast frequency dependent Rayleigh fading.
The bits are robbed from the traffic channel to send the PCGs.

Continued
The stream of PCBs at 800 bps is called the power control subchannel(PCS).
The PCB is sent every 1.25 ms. Total no of PCBs in a 20 ms F/R traffic frame is (20ms/1.25ms) 16 segments. These segments are called Power control groups.(PCGs) Each PCG contains 24 bits. The position of the PCB inside the PCG is not fixed but pseudo-random. The PCB bit position is decided by the decimal value of the first four MSBs of the decimator output. The Power control bits are non error protected.

Closed loop power control during soft handoff

In soft handoff the mobile maintains connection with 2 or 3 base stations. Hence it receives traffic channels from all the base stations.

It may happen that one BS is telling the MS to power up while the other is telling it to power down.
IS-95 gives the foll rule: 1.If any BS commands the MS to power down,it will power down. 2.The MS will power up if and only if all the BS involved the soft handoff command the MS to power up .

SECTION 6 Capacity
Section Introduction: What is system Capacity. Capacity related to Processing gain . Points to remember.

What is system Capacity

Capacity is defined as total number of simultaneous users the system can support. Capacity is related to the interference in the system while quality is related with BER. The actual capacity of CDMA depends on many factors like,receiver demodulation,power control accuracy,interference induced by users of same cell and neighboring cells. The reverse link capacity in CDMA is often the limiting link in terms of capacity.

Capacity related to Processing gain

Points to remember
1.CDMA Capacity is Noise limited. 2.Capacity can be increased by reducing the amount of loading from users in adjacent cells. 3.Practically it is observed that as the number of users are doubled the PG reduces by a factor of 3db. 4.Capacity is inversely proportional to the required Eb/No of the link. 5.Spatial filtering increases the systems capacity. 6.Using variable rate vocoders helps in increasing the systems capacity.

EXAMPLE
Max. number of simultaneous users per Sector per FA per BTS :
Grade of Service : Erlang / Sector / Carrier / BTS : Number of sectors per BTS : Number of carriers per BTS : Erlang per BTS with 3-sector & 4 FAs : Erlang traffic reduction per BTS due to 1% data user : Capacity reduction due to non uniform subs. Distribution : Avg. offered Erlang traffic per BTS (after the reduction) : Usage per Subscriber: No. of subscribers (@ 50 mE / sub.) per 3-sector 4 FA BTS :

36
01 % 25 03 04 300 10% 15% 225 50mE 4,600

SECTION 7 Handoffs
Section Introduction: Hand-Offs. Types of handoffs. Points to remember.

Hand-offs

In mobile communication environment,as user moves from the coverage area of one BS to that of another BS, a hand off must occur to maintain the link from one BS to other BS. The hand off is executed in three steps. 1. MS is in communication with current BS. 2. MS is in communication with current BS and the new BS. 3. MS is in communication with new BS only. Different types of Hand offs: 1. Soft handoff 2. Softer handoff 3. Hard handoff

Soft Handoff
A soft hand off is a make before break scenario.
Soft handoff is the process by which a mobile maintains connection with two or three base stations as it moves between them. As the MS moves from one cell to other cell a TCH is simultaneously maintained with both cells. On the forward link the MS uses rake receiver to demodulate the two separate signals.The two signals are combined to yield a composite signal of better quality. On the RL the signal from the mobile is received by both the BS.The cells separately demodulate the signal and send the demodulated frames back to the MSC. The MSC selects the best frame out of the two that are sent back. It eliminates the ping pong effect.(Switching back and forth between two base stations

Softer Hand-Off

This hand off occurs when the mobile transitions between two sectors of the same cell. Forward link process is same as that of the Soft Hand Off. In case of the reverse link the two sectors of the same cell receives two signals from the mobile. The signals are combined in the same cell and only one frame is send back to the MSC.

Hard Hand Off

A hard handoff is a break before make scenario. The CDMA system uses two types of Hard handoffs. 1. CDMA-to-CDMA handoff: This occurs when the mobile is transitioning between two CDMA carriers.This also occurs when the mobile is transitioning between two different CDMA operators.This type of handoff is also called D-to-D handoff. 2. CDMA-to-Analogue handoff: This occurs when the mobile is transitioning from a CDMA operator to an Analogue operator.This type of handoff is also called D-to-A handoff.

Points to remember
The mobile assists in the handoff process and hence is referred as Mobile Assisted Hand Off.(MAHO)
The hand off processed by the MSC. The mobile is given a list if hand off thresholds and a list of likely new cells. Classification of neighboring cells is done as: 1.Active set: Contains Cells used for communication.(contains at least one BS). 2.Candidate set:Contains list of BSs that could be used for communication based on the current signal strength measurements.

3.Neighbor set: Contains BSs that could be soon be promoted to the candidate set.
4.Remaining list: Contains BSs that do not qualify.

SECTION 6 PN - Planning
Section Introduction: Why PN offset planning ?. Short PN sequences. Why offsets are required ?.

Why PN offset planning

PN planning in CDMA is similar to frequency planning in GSM. In CDMA a logical channel is separated from other logical channels by Walsh codes. Suppose that BS1 transmits a forward TCH using W23 ,and BS 2 transmits A TCH using W23 and if both the stations are close to each other then there would be mutual interference. In reality TCH1 is further multiplied by a short PN sequence and TCH2 is further multiplied by some other PN sequence. This multiplication is done to provide another layer of isolation between forward channels of different base station. For this purpose each BS(or sector) is assigned a different short PN sequence.

Short PN Sequences

Each short PN sequence is generated using a shift register using 15 delay elements.

The length of such PN sequence is about 32,767 chips.

Hence we have these many PN sequences available to assign to different base stations.

A difference of just one chip provides very little isolation in mobile environment.
Since the chip rate is 1.2288Mcps the duration of each chip is 814 nsec. The time duration of 814 ns corresponds to propogation distance of 244.14m (814ns*300,000,000m/sec).

Why offset is required ?

Offsets are used to prevent mutual interference.
Suppose that the PN sequence of BS1 differs from that of BS 2 by 1 chip. A MS is 488 m away from BS1 and 244 m away from BS 2. Now the PN sequence arriving at the MS would apeear to it as a sequence with A shift of two chips and that coming from BS 1 would appear to have a shift of one chip. In this case the mobile would not know which PN came from which BS. To avoid this confusion the IS-95 and CDMA 1X standards specifies the PN sequences to have a minimum separation of 64 chips between them. Each usable PN sequence is defined by its PN offset.

IS 95 standards
Parameter Length of PN sequence Chip Rate Physical Dimensions 215-1 chips (32,767) 1.2288 106 cps (chips per second) (1.2288 106)-1 seconds 814 ns [(215-1) / 1. 2288 106] 26.7 ms 64 chips or 52.1 s

Time duration of individual chip Time duration of PN sequence Increments between adjacent offsets Total number of PN Offsets available

512

Pilot_Inc Factor
This fcator signifies the minimum separation between adjacent chips. Pilot_Inc=512/Total usable PN sequence. If Pilot_inc=2 then the minimum separation becomes 2*64=128 chips. Reliance is using a pilot_inc=3. Tatas are using pilot_inc=4.

A BSs identifying PN sequence is also referred to as pilot offset.

PN confusion, also referred to as PN offset interference, occurs when two or more PNs appear within the mobiles RAKE active search window.

Parameters for PN offset planning

There are three parameters to be established before one makes a plan for PN offset assignment. Those are: 1.Delay Spread.

2.Pilot search window.

3.Pilot_inc factor.

Delay Spread
This parameter describes the time spread of the multi-path comp for certain environment.
Measured data indicates that the mean delay spread value is different for different kinds of environments. Delay spread of 6us means that if a narrow band pulse is sent,the effective pulse width at the receiver is 6 us. DS determines the appropriate Search Window size for active pilots DS must be incorporated in all equations dealing with co-time pilot existence
Environment
Heavy Mountains Dense Urban Urban Suburban Rural

Delay spread(us)
1 - 100 6 - 10 4-6 2-4 0.2 - 2

Search Window Size

The MS has the capability of tracking up to 6 pilots in the active set .
Due to propagation delay and multipath ,arrival times of the pilots might be different from their default value. For this purpose the MS has to search for the exact PN offset of the pilot. Both speed and accuracy of the search is limited by the Search window size. There are three type of search window sizes: 1.Active Search Window. 2.Neighbor Search Window. 3.Remaining Search Window. The MS searches for all pilots in periodic time intervals known as search cycles.