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Early Astronomy
Ancient Greeks
Astronomy is the science that studies the universe. It includes the observation and interpretation of celestial bodies and phenomena. The Greeks used philosophical arguments to explain natural phenomena. The Greeks also used some observational data.
Early Astronomy
Ancient Greeks
Geocentric Model = Ptolemy Greek Astronomer
In the ancient Greeks geocentric model, the moon, sun, and the known planetsMercury, Venus, Mars, and Jupiterorbit Earth.
Early Astronomy
Ancient Greeks
Ptolemaic System
Ptolemy created a model of the universe that accounted for the movement of the planets. Retrograde motion is the apparent westward motion of the planets with respect to the stars.
March Sept. April Feb. May Aug. July Jan. June Dec.
East
Retrograde Motion
99 Years of Astronomy
Early Astronomy
The Birth of Modern Astronomy
Nicolaus Copernicus
Copernicus concluded that Earth is a planet. He proposed a model of the solar system with the sun at the center. Heliocentric Model
This model explained the retrograde motion of planets better than the geocentric model.
Early Astronomy
The Birth of Modern Astronomy
Tycho Brahe
Tycho Brahe designed and built instruments to measure the locations of the heavenly bodies. Brahes observations, especially of Mars, were far more precise than any made previously.
Johannes Kepler
Kepler discovered three laws of planetary motion: 1. Orbits of the planets are elliptical. 2. Planets revolve around the sun at varying speed. 3. There is a proportional relationship between a planets orbital period and its distance to the sun.
Early Astronomy
The Birth of Modern Astronomy
German astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) helped establish the era of modern astronomy by deriving three laws of planetary motion.
Johannes Kepler
1599 Kepler hired by Tycho Brahe
Work on the orbit of Mars
Early Astronomy
Johannes Kepler used Tycho Brahes data to develop three laws that explained the motions of the planets.
Earths orbit Equal areas January 15th
KEPLERS EQUAL AREA LAW states that a line connecting Earth to the sun will pass over equal areas of space in equal times. Because Earths orbit is elliptical, Earth moves faster when it is nearer to the sun.
Early Astronomy
Equal areas law
KEPLERS EQUAL AREA LAW states that a line connecting Earth to the sun will pass over equal areas of space in equal times. Because Earths orbit is elliptical, Earth moves faster when it is nearer to the sun.
Faster
Slower
Early Astronomy
Galileo Galilei Italian scientist Galileo Galilei (15641642) used a new invention, the telescope, to observe the Sun, Moon, and planets in more detail than ever before.
Early Astronomy
The Birth of Modern Astronomy
Galileo Galilei
Galileos most important contributions were his descriptions of the behavior of moving objects. He developed his own telescope and made important discoveries: 1. Four satellites, or moons, orbit Jupiter. 2. Planets are circular disks, not just points of light. 3. Venus has phases just like the moon.
4. The moons surface is not smooth. 5. The sun has sunspots, or dark regions.
Early Astronomy
Sir Isaac Newton
English scientist Sir Isaac Newton (16421727) explained gravity as the force that holds planets in orbit around the Sun.
Early Astronomy
The Birth of Modern Astronomy
Sir Isaac Newton
Although others had theorized the existence of gravitational force, Newton was the first to formulate and test the law of universal gravitation. The universal law of gravitation, helped explain the motions of planets in the solar system.
Universal Gravitation
Gravitational force decreases with distance. The greater the mass of an object, the greater is its gravitational force.
2nd Law
acceleration) The change in motion (acceleration is proportional to the unbalanced force
3rd Law
For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
Gravity
Gravity is the force that
holds us to the Earth causes a rock to fall towards the ground causes the Earth to go around the Sun causes the Sun to be pulled towards the center of the Milky Way galaxy
Gravity acts between any two objects even if they are far apart.
action at a distance action distance
Summary
Keplers and Galileos Laws provided Newton with important clues that helped him formulate his laws of motion Newton arrived at 3 laws that govern the motion of objects
The law of inertia The law of force The law of action and reaction
Earth Science
Wave model
Wavelengths of radiation vary
Radio waves measure up to several kilometers long Gamma ray waves are less than a billionth of a centimeter long White light consists of several wavelengths corresponding to the colors of the rainbow
Produced by an incandescent solid, liquid, or high pressure gas Uninterrupted band of color Dark-line (absorption) spectrum Produced when white light is passed through a comparatively cool, low pressure gas Appears as a continuous spectrum but with dark lines running through it
Emission Spectrum
A spectrum consisting of individual lines at characteristic wavelengths produced when light passes through an incandescent gas; a bright-line spectrum.
Absorption Spectrum
A continuous spectrum crossed by dark lines produced when light passes through a nonincandescent gas.
Originally discovered by the Austrian mathematician and physicist, Christian Doppler (1803-53), this change in pitch results from a shift in the frequency of the sound waves.
Redshift, a phenomenon of electromagnetic waves such as light in which spectral lines are shifted to the red end of the spectrum.
The radiation emitted by an object moving toward an observer is squeezed; its frequency appears to increase and is therefore said to be blueshifted. In contrast, the radiation emitted by an object moving away is stretched or redshifted. Blueshifts and redshifts exhibited by stars, galaxies and gas clouds also indicate their motions with respect to the observer.
Redshift: This spectrum shows hydrogen shifted to the red end of the spectrum. This star is moving away from Earth.
Astronomical tools
Optical (visible light) telescopes
Two basic types (1) Refracting telescope
Uses a lens (called the objective) to bend (refract) the light to produce an image Light converges at an area called the focus Distance between the lens and the focus is called the focal length The eyepiece is a second lens used to examine the image directly Have an optical defect called chromatic aberration (color distortion)
Astronomical tools
Optical (visible light) telescopes
Two basic types (2) Reflecting telescope
Uses a concave mirror to gather the light No color distortion Nearly all large telescopes are of this type
The 200" (5m) Hale Reflector of Palomar Observatory is shown above. Until recently it was the world's largest optical/infrared telescope.
Astronomical tools
Optical (visible light) telescopes
Properties of optical telescopes
Light-gathering power Larger lens (or mirror) intercepts more light Determines the brightness Resolving power The ability to separate close objects Allows for a sharper image and finer detail
Astronomical tools
Optical (visible light) telescopes
Properties of optical telescopes
Magnifying power The ability to make an image larger Calculated by dividing the focal length of the objective by the focal length of the eyepiece Can be changed by changing the eyepiece Limited by atmospheric conditions and the resolving power of the telescope Even with the largest telescopes, stars (other than the Sun) appear only as points of light
Astronomical tools
Detecting invisible radiation
Radio radiation
Gathered by "big dishes" called radio telescopes Large because radio waves are about 100,000 times longer than visible radiation Often made of a wire mesh Have rather poor resolution Can be wired together into a network called a radio interferometer
Radio Telescope
A steerable radio telescope at Green Bank, West Virginia
Astronomical tools
Detecting invisible radiation
Radio radiation
Gathered by "big dishes" called radio telescopes Advantages over optical telescopes Less affected by weather Less expensive Can be used 24 hours a day Detects material that does not emit visible radiation Can "see" through interstellar dust clouds
Radio Telescope
The 300-meter radio telescope at Arecibo, Puerto Rico
E = mc2
Early universe was full of particles and radiation because of its high temperature
Background radiation from Big Bang has been freely streaming across universe since atoms formed at temperature ~ 3,000 K: visible/IR
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The first satellite built dedicated to cosmology. Its goals were to investigate the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB) of the universe and provide measurements that would help shape our understanding of the cosmos.
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The "famous" map of the CMB anisotropy formed from data taken by the COBE spacecraft.
Hubbles Evidence
Doppler shifting - wavelength emitted by something moving away from us is shifted to a lower frequency Sound of a fire truck siren - pitch of the siren is higher as the fire truck moves towards you, and lower as it moves away from you Visible wavelengths emitted by objects moving away from us are shifted towards the red part of the visible spectrum The faster they move away from us, the more they are redshifted. Thus, redshift is a reasonable way to measure the speed of an object (this, by the way, is the principal by which radar guns measure the speed of a car or baseball) When we observe the redshift of galaxies outside our local group, every galaxy appears to be moving away from us - universe is expanding.
Expansion of universe has redshifted thermal radiation from that time to ~1000 times longer wavelength: microwaves
First of all, we are reasonably certain that the universe had a beginning. Second, galaxies appear to be moving away from us at speeds proportional to their distance. This is called "Hubble's Law," named after Edwin Hubble (18891953) who discovered this phenomenon in 1929. This observation supports the expansion of the universe and suggests that the universe was once compacted.
Synthesis of Helium
The current CMB temperature tells us precisely how hot the universe was when it appeared. It tells us how much helium was initially produced. A helium nucleus contains 2 protons and 2 neutrons. At T > 1011 K, nuclear reactions converted protons into neutrons and back, keeping their numbers nearly equal. Between 1010 and 1011 K, neutron proton reactions favor protons, because neutrons are heavier than protons.
Synthesis of Helium
Energy is required to convert protons to neutrons. At T < 1010 K, only neutrons can be changed into protons. However, fusion continued to operate and protons and neutrons combined into deuterium. Then deuterium fused into helium. During the early era of nucleosynthesis, helium nuclei were being destroyed by gamma-rays. At ~1 minute, gamma-rays were gone and the proton neutron ratio was set to 7:1.
Synthesis of Helium
Big Bang theory prediction: 75% H, 25% He (by mass) Matches observations of nearly primordial gases
Synthesis of Helium
Abundances of other light elements agree with Big Bang model having 4.4% normal matter more evidence for WIMPS!