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Active circuits design is a broad and rapidly evolving field, so we can only present some of the basic concepts and principles here. Thermal noise is the most basic type of noise, being caused by thermal vibration of bound charges. Plasma noise is caused by random motion of charges in an ionized gas, such as a plasma, the ionosphere, or sparking electrical contacts.
Active circuits design is a broad and rapidly evolving field, so we can only present some of the basic concepts and principles here. Thermal noise is the most basic type of noise, being caused by thermal vibration of bound charges. Plasma noise is caused by random motion of charges in an ionized gas, such as a plasma, the ionosphere, or sparking electrical contacts.
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Active circuits design is a broad and rapidly evolving field, so we can only present some of the basic concepts and principles here. Thermal noise is the most basic type of noise, being caused by thermal vibration of bound charges. Plasma noise is caused by random motion of charges in an ionized gas, such as a plasma, the ionosphere, or sparking electrical contacts.
Droits d'auteur :
Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
Formats disponibles
Téléchargez comme PPT, PDF, TXT ou lisez en ligne sur Scribd
Active Microwave Circuits Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 2 Outline Introdution Noise in microwave systems Detectors and Mixers PIN diode switches PIN diode phase shifter Microwave sources Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 3 INTRODUCTION Any useful microwave system will require some nonlinear and active components. Such devices include diodes, transistors, and tubes, which can be used for detection, mixing, amplification, frequency multiplication, switching, and as sources. Active circuits design is a broad and rapidly evolving field, so we can only present some of the basic concepts and principles here. Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 4 Noise : the randommotions of charges charge carriers in devices and materials. Such motions can be caused by any of several mechanisms, leading to various sources of noise: Thermal noise is the most basic type of noise, being caused by thermal vibration of bound charges. Also known as Johnson or Nyquist noise. Shot noise is due to random fluctuations of charge carriers in an electron tube or solid-state device. NOISE IN MICROWAVE SYSTEMS Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 5 Flicker noise occurs in solid-state components and vacuum tubes. Flicker noise power varies inversely with frequency, and so is often called 1/f- noise. Plasma noise is caused by random motion of charges in an ionized gas, such as a plasma, the ionosphere, or sparking electrical contacts. Quantum noise results from the quantized nature of charge carriers and photons; often insignificant relative to other noise sources. NOISE IN MICROWAVE SYSTEMS Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 6 Noise Power and Equivalent Noise Temperature Noise power (due to thermal noise) The electrons in random motion, with a kinetic energy that is proportional to the temperature. These random motions produce small random voltage fluctuations at the resistor terminals. NOISE IN MICROWAVE SYSTEMS Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 7 Plancks black body radiation law, rms voltage across a resistor R is: hf << kT at microwave frequencies / 4 1 n hf kT hfBR V e =
Fig 1. A random voltage generated by a noisy resistor
NOISE IN MICROWAVE SYSTEMS Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 8 Note: This noise power is independent of frequency, and is referred to as a ``white`` noise source. A noisy resistor can be replaced with a Thevenin equivalent circuit consisting of noiseless resistor and a generator with a voltage given by Fig 1 . Fig2. Equivalent circuit of noisy resistor delivering maximum power to a load resistor through an ideal bandpass. NOISE IN MICROWAVE SYSTEMS Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 9 The maximum power delivered from the noisy resistor is: If an arbitrary source of noise (thermal or nonthermal) is white, it can be modeled as an equivalent thermal noise source, and characterized with an equivalent noise temperature. Fig3.The equivalent noise temperature Te, of an arbitary white noise source. NOISE IN MICROWAVE SYSTEMS Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 10 Active noise sources use a diode or tube to provide a calibrated noise power output, and are useful for test and measurement applications. Active noise generators can be characterized by an equivalent noise temperature, but a more common measure of noise power for such components is the excess noise ratio (ENR) defined as : 0 0 0 0 ( ) 10log 10log n n P P T T ENR dB p T
= = NOISE IN MICROWAVE SYSTEMS Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 11 Measurement of Noise Temperature by the Y-Factor Method. In principle, the equivalent noise temperature of a component can be determined by measuring the output power when a matched load at 0K is connected at the input of the component. If two loads at significantly different temperatures are available, then the Y-factor method can be applied. Fig.4.the Y-factor method for measuring the equivalent noise temperature of an amplifier. NOISE IN MICROWAVE SYSTEMS Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 12 The output power is: Define the Y-factor as: The equivalent noise temperature is: 1 1 2 2 e e P GkT B GkT B P GkT B GkT B = + = + 1 1 2 2 1 e e T T P Y P T T + = = > + 1 2 1 e T YT T Y
NOISE IN MICROWAVE SYSTEMS
Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 13 Noise Figure. NF is a measure of the degradation in the signal-to-noise ratio between the input and the output of the component. The signal-to-noise ratio is the ratio of desired signal power to undesired noise power. Noiseless network: the signal-to-noise ratio will be unchanged. Noisy network: the output signal-to-noise ratio will be reduced. The noise figure is a measure of this reduction and is defined as : NOISE IN MICROWAVE SYSTEMS Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 14 A figure of merit to measure the degradation of SNR of a system: The input noise power is The output noise power is The output signal power is The noise figure is: Noise figure is defined for a matched input source, and for a noise source that consists of a resistor at temperature 0 0 0 ( ) 1 1 i e e i S kGB T T T F kT B GS T + = = + > 0 290 T k = ) 0 0 e N kGB T T = + 0 i S GS = 0 i N kT B = NOISE IN MICROWAVE SYSTEMS Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 15 Noise Figure of a Cascaded System. Using Noise Temperatures, the Noise power at the output of first stage is: Since for noise figure calculations. The noise power at the output of the second stage is : 1 1 0 1 1 = e N GkT B GkT B + 0 = i N kT B 0 2 1 2 2 =G e N N G kT B + 1 2 0 1 2 1 1 =G e e G kB T T T G
+ +
' ' NOISE IN MICROWAVE SYSTEMS Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 16 For the equivalent system we have The noise temperature of the cascade system is The Noise figure of the cascade system is For an arbitrary number of stages: ) 0 1 2 0 =G cas N G kB T T + e1 2 1 1 =T cas e T T G + ) 1 2 1 1 =F 1 cas F F G + 3 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 =F ...... cas F F F G GG
+ + + 2 3 e1 1 1 2 =T ........ e e T T T G GG + + + NOISE IN MICROWAVE SYSTEMS Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 17 Diode Characteristics A diode is basically a nonlinear resistor, with a DC V-I characteristic that can be expressed as: The diode voltage be A Taylor series about Vo as follows: The first derivative can be evaluated as The second derivative is: ) ) 1 V s I V I e E = 0 V V v = + Fig(5).V-I characteristics of a diode DETECTORS AND MIXERS Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 18 Then I(V) can be rewritten as the sum of the DC bias current I o , and an AC current i: A typical equivalent circuit for a diode is: Fig.6. Equivalent AC circuit model for a diode. DETECTORS AND MIXERS Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 19 Rectifier Application A diode to convert a fraction of an RF input signal to DC power. Voltage across the diode Diode current A Current sensitivity measure of the change in DC output current for a given input RF power. Current sensitivity Voltage sensitivity DETECTORS AND MIXERS Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 20 Detector application The nonlinearity of diode demodulate an amplitude modulated RF carrier. Diode current Output spectrum Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 21 Mixer A mixer uses the nonlinearity of diode to generate an output spectrum consisting of the sum and difference frequencies of two input signals. Down-converter Up-converter Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 22 Single-Ended Mixer The diode current will consist of a constant DC bias term, and RF and LO signals of frequencies, due to the term which is linear in v. The v 2 term will give rise to the following output current: Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 23 The 2w r and 2w 0 terms will be filtered out The most important terms are of the w r -w 0 and w r +w 0 type In an up-converter w 0 +w i is the upper sideband and w 0 -w i is the lower sideband Conversion loss is defined as, Mixer design involves matching all three ports Noise characteristics of mixer can be critical Good isolation between RF and LO ports DETECTORS AND MIXERS Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 24 Balanced Mixer Combines two or more identical single-ended mixers with a 3 dB hybrid junction (90% or180%). Can also give cancellation of AM noise from the local oscillator. Photograph of a microstrip circuit DETECTORS AND MIXERS Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 25 Balanced mixer circuit The RF and LO voltages at the input of the hybrid can be expressed as: The quadratic term of the diode V-I characteristic will give rise to the desired mixer products, so we will consider only this term and assume identical diodes so that diode current can be represented as: DETECTORS AND MIXERS Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 26 After low-pass filtering, the remaining terms will be DC, noise, and IF frequency terms: Combining these currents gives the IF output as: DETECTORS AND MIXERS Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 27 DETECTORS AND MIXERS Other Types of Mixers: There are several other mixer circuits that can be used to enhance or reduce various modulation products and harmonics some of these are briefly described below. A circuits that is often used for subharmonically pumped mixers for millimeter wave applications uses a back-to-back pair of diodes. Antiparallel diode mixer LO frequency is of usual LO frequency. Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 28 DETECTORS AND MIXERS Double- balanced mixer Can suppress even harmonics of both the LO and RF signals. Better isolation between ports. Requires 4 diodes; more LO power. Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 29 PIN DIODE SWITCHES The PIN diode finds wide usage in RF, UHF and microwave circuits. It is fundamentally a device whose impedance, at these frequencies, is controlled by its DC excitation. A unique feature of the PIN diode is its ability to control large amounts of RF power with much lower levels of DC. PIN Diode Fundamentals Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 30 PIN DIODE SWITCHES When the diode is forward biased charge carriers are injected to the I-region They do not immediately recombine Finite quantity of charge remains stored which lowers the I-region resistivity to a value , and leads to a low impedance state. Forward Bias Model f R f R Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 31 PIN DIODE SWITCHES The switching speed in any application depends on the driver circuit, as well as the PIN diode. (Switching speeds of 10 ns or less are typical). When the PIN diode is at reverse bias there is no stored charge in the I region and the diode appears as a capacitor , and leads to a relatively high diode impedance. j C Reverse Bias Model Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 32 Single-pole switches The bias signal must be applied to the diode with RF chokes and DC blocks to isolate it from the RF signal. Switches are used extensively in microwave systems, for directing signal or power Flow between other components. PIN diodes can be used to construct an electronic switching element easily integrated with planar circuitry and capable of high-speed operation. Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University PIN DIODE SWITCHES 33 Ideally,a switch would have zero insertion loss in the ON state, and infinite attenuation in the OFF state Equivalent circuits for the series (a) and shunt (b) switches Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University PIN DIODE SWITCHES 34 Several single-throw switches can be combined to form a variety Of multiple-throw configuration. SPDT PIN diode switchs In operation, one diode is forward in the low impedance state, with the other diode biased in the high impedance state Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University PIN DIODE SWITCHES 35 Application When switched into the transmit state each diode becomes forward biased. The series diode appears as a low impedance to the signal heading toward the antenna and the shunt diode effectively shorts the receivers antenna terminals to prevent overloading. In the receive condition the diodes are at zero or reverse bias and present essentially a low capacitance, which creates a direct low insertion loss path between the antenna and receiver. Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 36 Sveral types of microwave phase shifters can be constructed with PIN diodes switching elements. Diode phase shifters are easy to Integrate and have high speed. SLPS is the most straighforward type, using two transmission lines of different length. Switched line The differential phase shift between the two paths is given by: Phase shift of 180, 90, 45 degrees. PIN DIODE PHASE SHIFTER Swithed-line phase shifter Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 37 Loaded-line phase shifter For small amount of phase shift Less than 45 degrees The disadvantage is the insersion loss that is inherently present, due to the reflection from the shunt load. And increasing b to obtain a large entails a greater IL N ( PIN DIODE PHASE SHIFTER Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 38 The reflections from the shunt loads susceptance can be reduced by using two shunt loads separated by a length of line. / 4 P Then the partial reflection from the second load will be 180 out of phase with the partial reflection from the first load, leading to a cancelation . PIN DIODE PHASE SHIFTER Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 39 The susceptance, B, can be implemented with a lumped inductor or capacitor, or with a stub, and switched between two states with an SPST diode switch. The maximum phase shift obtainable from a loaded line section is limited by both bandwidth and diode power handling considerations. The above factors limit the maximum phase shift angle in practical circuits to about 45 PIN DIODE PHASE SHIFTER Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 40 Reflective Phase Shifter Power equally divided between two ports Both diodes biased in the same state Phase shift is obtained from the diodes being on or off PIN DIODE PHASE SHIFTER Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 41 The relationship between maximum phase shift, transmitted power, and PIN diode ratings is as follows: In comparison to the loaded line phase shifter, the hybrid design can handle up to twice the peak power when using the same diodes. PIN DIODE PHASE SHIFTER Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 42 MICROWAVE SOURCES Overview of Microwave Sources A source of microwave power is obviously essential for any microwave system. Communication and radar systems generally use a relatively high-power source for the transmitter, and one or more low-power sources for local oscillator and down conversion functions in the receiver. Test and measurement systems usually require a low-power microwave source, often tunable over a wide banwidth. And the microwave oven, that common of all microwave systems, requires a singlefrequency high-power source. At present, these requirements are met with a variety of solid-state and microwave tube Sources. Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 43 Generally the division is between solid-state sources for low power and frequency, And tubes for high power and/or high frequencies. MICROWAVE SOURCES Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University Vacuum tube 44 Solid State Sources Solid state have the advantages of small size, low cost, and compatibility with microwave integrated circuits, and so are usually preferred whenever they can meet the necessary power and frequency requirements. Solid-state microwave sources can be categorized as two-terminal devices (diodes), or three-terminal devices (transistor oscillators). The most common diode sources are the GUNN diode and the IMPATT diode, both of which directly convert a DC bias to RF power in the frequency range of about 2 to 100Ghz. The GUNN diode is a transferred-electron device that uses a bulk semiconductor (GaAs or InP), as opposed to a pn junction. This effect leads to to a negative resistance Characteristic that can be employed with an external resonator to produce a stable oscillator. MICROWAVE SOURCES Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 45 The IMPATT diode uses a reversed-biased pn junction to generate microwave power. When coupled with a high-Q resonator and biased at an appropriate Operating point, a negative-resistance effect can be achieved at the RF operating Frequency, and oscillation will occur. IMPATT sources are generally more noisy than sources using GUNN diodes, but are capable of higher powers and higher DC to RF conversion efficiencies. Transistor oscillator sources generally have lower frequency and power capabilities when compared to GUNN and IMPATT sources, but do offer several advantages Over diodes. MICROWAVE SOURCES Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 46 Microwave Tubes Microwave tubes are essential for generation of a very high powers (10kw to 10Mw) and for the higher millimeter wave frequencies (100GHz and higher). Several of microwave tubes are not actually sources by themselves, but are high- power amplifiers. Such tubes are used in conjunction with lower power sources (solid-state sources) in transmitter systems. There is a wide variety of tube geometries, as well as a wide variety of principles on which tube operation is based, but all tubes have several common features. All tubes involve the interaction of an electron with an electromagnetic field, inside a glass or metal vacuum envelope. MICROWAVE SOURCES Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 47 Microwave tubes can be grouped into two categories, depending on the type of electron beam-field interaction. In linear beam or `O type tubes the electron beam traverses the length of the tube, and is parallel to the electric field. In the crossed or `m field type tubes the focusing field is perpendicular to the accelerating electric field. Microwave tubes can also be classified as either oscillators or amplifiers. MICROWAVE SOURCES Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University 48 Active microwave circuits had and still having an important role in the development of many communication, medical, industrial and Measurement systems Concluding Remarks Telecommunications Systems DESA/Master Abdelmalek Essaadi University