Individual Determinants

It is said that "managers, unlike parents, must work with used, not new, human being" whom others have already used first. So when individuals enter an organization, they are a bit like used cars. Each is different. Some have "low mileage" with a little exposure and others are "well worn" having been driven over some rough roads.

Determinants of Individual Behavior (contd)

Similarly, people enter organizations with certain values & characteristics that will influence their behavior at work.

The more obvious of them are: a) Biographical Characteristics. b) Personal Characteristics.

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Biographical Characteristics

Ability

Dimensions of Intellectual Ability

Number aptitude Number aptitude Verbal comprehension Verbal comprehension Perceptual speed Perceptual speed Inductive reasoning Inductive reasoning Deductive reasoning Deductive reasoning Spatial visualization Spatial visualization Memory Memory

Examples of Dimensions of Intellectual Ability

Number Aptitude Ability to do speedy & accurate arithmetic E.g. Accountant

Verbal Comprehension Ability to understand what is read or heard & the relationship of words to each other E.g. Plant Manager (Follow corporate policies on hiring)

Perceptual Speed Ability to identify visual similarities & differences quickly & accurately E.g. Fire investigator

Inductive Reasoning Ability to identify a logical sequence in a problem & then solve the problem E.g. Market researcher

Deductive Reasoning Ability to use logic & assess the implications of an argument E.g. Supervisor

Spatial Visualization Ability to imagine how an object would look if its position in space were changed E.g. Interior decorator

Memory Ability to retain & recall past experiences E.g. Salesperson

Physical Ability

The Ability-Job Fit

Employees Abilities

AbilityJob Fit

Jobs Ability Requirements

Attitudes

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Types of Attitudes
Job Satisfaction An individuals general attitude towards one's own job.

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The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance

Leon Festinger, in the late 1950s, proposed the Cognitive Dissonance Theory Explains the linkage between first attitudes and then behavior Cognitive dissonance is an uncomfortable feeling caused by holding conflicting ideas simultaneously Any form of inconsistency is uncomfortable and that individuals will attempt to reduce the dissonance No individual can completely avoid dissonance However, if the elements creating the dissonance are relatively unimportant, the pressure to correct this imbalance will be low The inherent tension in high dissonance tends to be reduced with high rewards.
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The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance

Dissonance An unpleasant physiological state of arousal
For example, a belief in animal rights could be interpreted as inconsistent with eating meat or wearing fur Desire to reduce dissonance

Importance of elements creating dissonance

Aesop fable, The Fox and the Grapes

Degree of individual influence over elements

Smokers could rationalize their behavior

Rewards involved in dissonance

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Self-Perception Theory

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An Application: Attitude Surveys

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Sample Attitude Survey

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Responses to Job Dissatisfaction

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How Employees Can Express Dissatisfaction

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Beliefs
Beliefs are descriptive thought that an individual holds about something

Beliefs are the psychological cornerstone of people

For e.g. My job pays me well is a belief because it describes the relationship between ones job and other aspects of the job setting

They serve as a foundation upon which people order & structure their lives

A persons beliefs are influenced by a wide variety of factors such as:

Self esteem Past experience
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 Beliefs may be of various types:

Absolute: bases on mathematical fact. E.g. night follows day

Near Absolute: based on seasonal changes. E.g. continuous development of changes, social change, IT development etc.

Acts and articles of faith: based on the certainty of God and his teachings

Other ethical and moral bases: related to what is right, wrong, honest, trustworthy etc. 20

Values

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Types of Values - Rokeach Value Survey

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Values in the Rokeach Survey

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Values in the Rokeach Survey (contd)

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Mean Value Rankings of Executives, Union Members, and Activists

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Dominant Work Values in Todays Workforce

SN 1 2 Stage Veterans (Protestant Work Ethics) Existential Job Entry Dominant Work Terminal Values Values 1950 early Great Hard work, Comfortable life & 1960s Depression conservative, & org. family security. W-W II. loyalty. 1960 1970J-F-K, The Quality of Life, nonFreedom, equality Beatles, confirming, seeking (Hippie ethics). Vietnam War. autonomy, & self loyalty. 1965 1985Reagan & Success, achievement, Accomplish & social conservative ambition, hard work, recognition. policy. loyalty to career. 1985 2000M-T-V, A-I-D- Flexibility, Job True friendship, S, I-T & satisfaction, leisure pleasure & Global time & loyalty to happiness. Village. relationships. 2000 to (Approximatel Confident, financial present y under the success, self-reliant but age of 30) team-oriented; loyalty to both self and relationships.
2003 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 26

Influence

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Boomers (Pragmatic) Generation X (Xers) Nexters

Dominant Work Values in Todays Workforce

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Hofstedes Framework for Assessing Cultures

Power Distance. Individualism versus Collectivism. Quantity of Life versus Quality of Life. Uncertainty Avoidance. Long-term versus Short-term Orientation.
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Hofstedes Framework for Assessing Cultures

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Hofstedes Framework: Power Distance

Low distance Relatively equal power between those with status/wealth and those without status/wealth Accept power relations that are more consultative or democratic People relate to one another more as equals regardless of formal positions e.g. Ireland, Austria, Australia, Denmark, New Zealand High distance Extremely unequal power distribution between those with status/wealth and those without status/wealth The less powerful accept power relations that are autocratic or paternalistic Subordinates acknowledge the power of others based on their formal, hierarchical positions e.g. Malaysia

Hofstedes Framework (contd)

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Hofstedes Framework (contd)

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Hofstedes Framework (contd)

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Hofstedes Framework: Uncertainty Avoidance

High Uncertainty Avoidance
Society does not like ambiguous situations and tries to avoid them Measures how much members of a society attempt to cope with anxiety by minimizing uncertainty People prefer explicit (open) rules (e.g. about religion and food) Formally structured activities, and employees tend to remain longer with their present employer

Low Uncertainty Avoidance

Society does not mind ambiguous situations and embraces them

People prefer implicit (hidden) or flexible rules or guidelines and informal activities Employees tend to change employers more frequently.

Hofstedes Framework (contd)

People value actions and attitudes that affect the future

People value actions and attitudes that are affected by the past or the present Normative statements, protecting one's own face, respect for tradition 35

Hofstedes Framework: An Assessment

There are regional differences within countries Hofstede had to make many judgment calls while doing the research Some results dont match what is believed to be true about given countries Despite these problems it remains a very popular framework

Needs and Goals

Needs trigger a certain behavior & influences individual motivation in organizations.

Unsatisfied needs give rise to tension & an individual engages in behavior to satisfy needs for tension reduction.

The actual process of motivation starts with the identification of needs.

The stronger the needs we have, the more we are motivated to fulfill these needs. Needs are deficiencies that energize us or

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2 types of needs
Primary Needs:
Are the basic physical needs that include food, water, sex, sleep, air and reasonably comfortable temperature.

These needs are conditioned by our social practices.

Secondary Needs:

Are social and psychological needs, including selfesteem, belongingness and affection.

They are valuable in our career making process.

These are the needs that complicate our efforts in the organization.

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Goals
Goals are defined as the end-results to be achieved.

Every human being is goal oriented. Every organization has goals.

Goals influence an individual motivation in organization.

Individual goal has to be in congruence to organizational goals. Goals guide actions & provide direction to an individual.

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Nature of Goals
Multiple goals: Individuals have multiple goals to satisfy their needs and interests

Conflicting: Multiple goals lead to intraindividual conflicts

Succession and displacement: New goals can succeed old goals

SMART

Motivation: Goals provide direction and motivation to individuals

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Organizational Goals in Nepal
Nepalese organizations generally lack long term corporate goals
Environment analysis is absent Unclear objectives of goals Mission statement/strategy is absent

Most organizations have short term goals

Goal formation in Nepalese organizations is top-down. There is absence of employee participation

Public enterprises in Nepal have become victims of goal displacement. E.g. Jute factory, Hetauda Textile Industry etc.

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