Descent and Landing

Descent Profiles
When operating piston and light turboprop aircraft descent planning is quite simple. These aircraft are relatively easy to slow down in the descent and configure for approach and landing. (propellers add drag) Jet aircraft are designed to offer minimal drag in order to achieve high cruising speeds. As a result they have a tendency to be slippery (resist deceleration) With larger aircraft momentum plays a big part in this reluctance to slow down.

Choosing a Descent Point

There are many factors involved in choosing a descent point:
Weather (icing, turbulence, wind) Fuel Burn Crossing Restrictions (ATC, STAR) Speed Limit Orders

Descent should be delayed as long as possible to avoid prolonged exposure to turbulence or icing. Delaying descent also produces a more fuel efficient profile. Winds will affect the descent point by dictating a late descent in tailwind conditions or an early descent in headwind conditions. The descent point always hinges on the ability to get down, and get slowed down in time to execute an arrival and approach.

ATC will sometimes impose crossing restrictions which may result in starting the descent earlier than anticipated. STAR procedures often include specific crossing and speed restrictions which must be planned for and adhered to. The key is formulating a plan well ahead of time and adapting to changes which may arise during the descent. A failure to meet target speeds for flap extension in the descent will result in a requested level off or extended approach path. If close enough to the airport it could result in a missed approach.

Rules of Thumb
To plan your descent point for a 3 slope multiply altitude change (in thousands) by three to find required distance to start descent. 20,000 -10,000 =10,000 to be lost 103=30 Begin descent 30nm back to cross fix at 10,000 Descent rate required to meet crossing restriction is altitude to be lost divided by minutes to fix. 23000 to descend, 7 minutes from fix: 23000/7=3300 /min. To plan a constant 300 per nm descent profile multiply ground speed by five to achieve required rate of descent. Or divide GS by 2 and add a 0. (3 descent path) At a ground speed of 450kts the required rate of descent is 2250 per minute. This rate of descent must be recalculated as ground speed changes.

Exercise
You are flying a Boeing 737 and have been cleared the KEINN SEVEN ARR, RWYS 08L and 08R are active. You are 30nm North at FL280 and proceeding direct TRENA.
At what point should you start your descent to maintain a 3 descent profile? Considering a 370 knot ground speed what is the initial required rate of descent? What crossing restrictions must you meet? What routing will you fly? Give specific track information. What speed restrictions must you meet? List all and be specific.

Emergency Descent
An emergency descent is initiated when loss of altitude or a time to landing is of the essence. In the event of pressurization problems either in the form of rapid decompression or a smoke removal drill; loss of altitude is the priority. In this case an emergency descent configuration which provides the greatest loss of altitude (highest rate if descent) will be initiated. (generally flaps and gear extended to increase drag) In the event of a time sensitive issue such as an uncontrollable engine or cabin fire the time to landing takes priority. In this case an emergency descent at maximum forward speed will be initiated. ATC must always be advised as soon as practical to avoid potential traffic conflicts.

LANDING

Fly The Numbers

Landing large aircraft requires diligent speed control and handling. VREF speed is calculated for each approach and can vary greatly with weight. VREF is a result of stall speed for a given aircraft weight in landing configuration. (Normally 1.3VSO) Large aircraft require greater landing distances and take longer to slow down. Any deviation from the published speeds could result in landing long. The aircraft should cross the threshold at 50 and VREF.

At 50 start the flare with a simultaneous power reduction. If a 3 glide slope is maintained throughout the wheels should touch down positively at the 1000 markers. Attempting to milk it on will increase landing distances and possibly result in stalling just above the runway surface. See MD-80 video.

Wind Adjustment
VREF should be adjusted to account for gusty wind conditions. A gust factor must be added and is usually operator specific. An approach speed of VREF + gust factor to a maximum of 15-20kts is fairly standard but operator specific. This gust factor correction provides a further buffer between VREF and stall speed to protect against performance degrading wind shear.

Crosswinds
Crosswind technique in aircraft with long wingspans and under wing engines is very demanding. In strong crosswinds the danger of striking an engine or wing tip is very real. Manufacturers publish approved crosswind techniques and limitations which account for these airframe restrictions. The preferred crosswind technique is to crab until just before touchdown at which point rudder and aileron input is used to straighten out the crab and maintain centerline. This technique avoids long periods of side slip and maximizes passenger comfort. In strong crosswinds it is possible for the pilots to be sitting over the grass just prior to touchdown, this requires a good feel for the dimensions of the aircraft.

Landing Performance
Calculating landing performance accurately becomes critical in large aircraft. Performance charts or company landing cards will be available to determine landing distance for prevailing conditions. Any abnormal situation will have an effect on landing distance required. (anti-skid failure, flap/slat malfunction, downslope, surface contamination, tailwind).

Landing Distance Required

For commuter and airline operators a dispatch restriction of 60% of landing distance (jets) and 70% of landing distance (turboprops) is enforced. In order for a turboprop aircraft to be dispatched to an airport the landing distance required must be no more than 70% of the landing distance available. This restriction must be calculated and met before departure, but is not limiting upon arrival.

Canadian Runway Friction Index

The CRFI is a surface friction report measured with a decelerometer when available. CRFI is measured on a scale of 0 to 1 with 0 representing the poorest braking action. The CRFI and its associated landing distance table contains advisory landing distance information for less than ideal runway surface conditions. In the absence of manufacturer published landing distances for contaminated runways the CRFI table corrections are available for use.

The CRFI will be given as part of an Aircraft Movement Surface Condition Report (AMSCR) when available. The AMSCR is issued to alert pilots to natural surface contaminants which could affect aircraft braking performance. A CRFI crosswind limit chart is also published. These tables are found in the AIM 1.6.6

Hydroplaning
A CRFI is not issued for runways contaminated with water alone. This standing water can have a significant impact on stopping distances. Hydroplaning has been estimated to increase stopping distances by as much as 700%. The wet condition associated with rain may produce friction values of approx. CRFI 0.3 for a poorly drained surface but normally 0.5 for well maintained and drained surfaces.

Questions
At what speed will a C-172 start to hydroplane on takeoff? Landing? Will the nosewheel hydroplane at the same speed as the mains? At what speed will a B-95 start to hydroplane on takeoff? Landing? Will the nosewheel hydroplane at the same speed as the mains? Is hydroplaning more likely to occur on takeoff or landing? Why? Some large aircraft have a way to increase their landing hydroplane speed, what is it?

Types of Hydroplaning
Dynamic Hydroplaning: occurs when there is standing water on the runway. Water is not displaced fast enough to allow the tire to contact the surface, and the tire rides on a wedge of water. Viscous Hydroplaning: on smooth or contaminated surfaces (oil, rubber, dust, de-ice fluid, fuel) a thin film of water resists penetration by the tire and reduces braking action. Can occur at lower speeds. Reverted Rubber Hydroplaning: as a tire skids and rubber melts it acts as a seal which traps water under the tire footprint where it is heated to steam which supports the tire off the runway surface.

Rotating Tire =9 PSI

Non-Rotating Tire =7.7 PSI

Reversers
When contaminated runways reduce braking action thrust reversers can greatly improve stopping performance. The one area of caution is landings during reduced friction under crosswind conditions. Reverse is initially beneficial but caution must be used in the event of a skid. The reverse thrust vector will compound the skid by pulling the aircraft in the direction of the skid. If a skid condition is encountered reverse should be immediately disengaged, until the skid recovery is complete.

Reverse compounds a skid