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Introduction
Metal cutting puts extreme demands on the tool and tool material through conditions of high forces, high contact pressures, high temperatures, and intense chemical attack by difficult to cut work materials Most often cutting tools are used close to their ultimate resistance against these loads, especially to the limiting thermal and mechanical stresses. Tool wear describes the gradual failure of cutting tools due to regular operation Presently, no viable theories exist for predicting tool wear on the basis of properties of tool and work material
Generally, the over all cutting force F is related to cutting speed and feed as indicated in Figure. It is indicated that a low friction coating can lower the cutting force and thereby giving a lower edge temperature, which can be utilized to increase the productivity
Work material
Hardness [HV]
Hard particles
Ductility
Work harden
200 - 250 200 - 250 180 - 250 100 - 150 200 - 350 200 - 350
Tool Wear
Presently, no viable theories exist for predicting tool wear on the basis of properties of tool and work material Optical and electron microscopic and auto radiographic observations suggest that the tool wear phenomena occur at microscopic and atomic levels Depending on cutting operation, cutting parameters, work and tool material the performance of the tool is limited by nose wear, flank wear, crater wear, edge chippings, or combinations of these. Depending on the same parameters, the wear either occurs gradually by abrasive or adhesive wear, through plastic deformation, by more discrete losses of material through discrete fracture mechanisms, or by combinations of these
For coated tools: Coating removal due to poor substrate preparation Coating removal due to thermal softening of the substrate
Abrasive wear
Harder tool shears away small particles from the softer work material. Softer work material also removes small particles from the tool material but slowly. The hard tool particles are caught between the hard tool and soft workpiece, and this causes additional abrasion wear. Hard impurites in Tool and workpiece contain hard particles cause abrasion wear during machining.
Wear dominates the crater and flank wear of a milling tool. The arrows point at ridges of HSS material relatively resistant to abrasion. There is also evidence of edge fracture. Work material: C-steel.
Paper knife. An extremely fine-scaled abrasion, only resisted by the hard carbides, dominates the tool wear.
Adhesive wear
Adhesive wear is caused by the formation of welded asperity junctions between the chip and the tool faces and the fracture of the junctions by the shearing force so that tiny fragments of the tool are torn out and adhere to the chip. The adhesive component, often referred to as mild adhesive wear, is a tearing of superficial HSS material by high shear forces resulting in a slow drag of the surface layer and removal of small fragments in the direction of chip flow.
If the tool is used to its upper limit of heat resistance, severe adhesive wear may result as a large scale plastic flow of surface material in the direction of the chip flow Adhesive wear dominates the flank and crater wear of HSS tools if the edges reach high temperatures, i.e. at high cutting speed. Adhesive wear is further promoted when cutting chemically aggressive materials. Both mild and severe adhesive wear are primarily resisted by the HSS material through its high yield strength at elevated temperature (high hot hardness)
Flank wear
Diffusion wear
Diffusion wear characterizes the material loss due to diffusion of atoms of the tool material into the work piece moving over it Requirements for diffusion wear are
metallurgical bonding of the two surfaces so that atoms can move freely across the interface, a temperature high enough to make rapid diffusion possible some solubility of the tool material phases in the work material
Suh and Kramer proposed the wear rate is controlled by the mass diffusion rate Sproul Ono and Takeyama have shown that the chemical reaction taking place at the interface has a major effect on wear as oxygen gas accelerates the formation of oxide layers that are continuously torn off resulting in increased wear, while wear is decreased by an environment of argon gas.
Altintas proposed , the diffusion wear appear when the temperature increase at the contact zones, the atoms in the two materials become restive and migrate to the opposite material where the concentration of the same atom is less
The coatings combine a superior hardness (abrasive wear resistance) with relatively low chemical reactivity with metallic materials (adhesive wear resistance) Coated tools fail by fatigue and discrete delamination/detachment than removal by slow gradual wear. Once the coating is removed, the wear mechanisms are the same as those of uncoated, although more severe because more severe cutting parameters.The mechanisms are:
Coating removal due to poor substrate preparation Coating removal due to thermal softening of the substrate
The lateral compressive stresses state present in most PVD coatings will generate interfacial stresses S. At the top of e.g. grinding ridges this stress is a tensile lift off stress that may reach the same order of magnitude as the residual stress [12]. Such ridges can result from rough grinding.
Microscopic fatigue cracks observed on the rake face close to the edge of a hob tooth that has been cutting in carbon steel
Wear Cause of wear mechanism Abrasive Hard particles or other hard phases in the wear work material remove material by a ploughing action. Mild and High cutting speed generates high tool severe surface temperatures that facilitate strong adhesive adhesion between work and tool wear materials. The worst situation prevails for tough, ductile and chemically reactive work materials with low thermal conductivity. Plastic High cutting speed generates excessive deformation edge temperatures in combination with high loads. Fracture Interrupted cutting, especially in and combination with high cutting speed and use of cutting fluid, a tough and ductile fatigue work material. Use of insufficiently sharp tool edges.
Counteractive tool properties High matrix hardness, large volume of hard phases, hard coating Smooth surface, sharp edge, high hot hardness, high thermal conductivity, chemically inert (anti sticking) coating
High hot hardness, high thermal Conductivity. Smooth tool surface, high fracture toughness promoted by a defect free HSS with a fine grained structure of both matrix and hard phases
Table shows common wear mechanisms of HSS tools, their cause and how to fight them
Improving the surface integrity: Avoiding deterioration of the superficial HSS material by excessive heat generation. The macroscopic strength and the resistance to edge chipping of HSS materials is very sensitive to surface defects generated by the surface. A smooth tool surface contributes to the resistance against micro cracking and to avoid premature detachment of coatings
References
Sderberg, S., Jacobson S., Olsson, M., Wear Atlas of HSS Cutting Tools, Proceedings of the 5th International Congress on Tribology (Eurotrib 89), Helsinki, Finland, Finnish Society for Tribology, 1989 Lim, C.Y.H., Lim, S.C., Lee, K.S., The performance of TiN-coated high speed steel tool inserts in turning, Tribology International 32 (1999) 393-398 Hogmark, S. Jacobson, S., Larsson, M., Wiklund, U., Mechanical and tribological requirements and evaluation of coating composites, In Modern Tribology 2000. Ed. B. Bushan, Vol II, 931-959 CRC Press 2001 Le May, I., Principles of mechanical metallurgy, Elsevier 1981 Larsson, M., Olsson M., Hedenqvist, P., Hogmark, S., Mechanisms of coating failure as demonstrated by scratch and indentation testing of TiN coated HSS - On the influence of coating thickness, substrate hardness and surface topography, Surface Engineering 16, 5 (2000) 436-444 Wiklund, U., Gunnars, J., Hogmark, S., Influence of residual stresses on fracture and delamination of thin hard coatings, Wear 232 (1999) 262-269