TABULATION AND CROSS TABULATION

BY: ARCHAY ANKIT SHARMA ANKITA SIKKA EKTA ISHITA APOORVA BHAVNA

TABULATION OF DATA
After collecting, editing, coding and classification ,when a mass of data has been assembled ,it becomes necessary for researcher to arrange the same in concise and logical manner. The process of placing classified data into tabular form is known as tabulation. OR Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying the same in compact form. Rows are horizontal arrangements whereas columns are vertical arrangements. It may be simple, double or complex depending upon the type of classification.

Can be done by : hand or mechanically through electronic devices. Choice Depends on :

    

size, type of study, cost considerations, time pressures and availability of machines/computers.

Hand tabulation is preferred in small inquiries where number of questionnaires are less.

Direct tally

Count method

Hand tabulation Can be done using

list

Card sort

IMPORTANCE
Tabulation is essential for following reasons: It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a minimum. It facilitates the process of comparison. It facilitates the summation of items. It helps in detection of errors and ommisions. It provides a basis for various statistical computations.

CONTENTS OF TABLE

Table number. Title of table. Caption. Stub. Body/field. Head note. Foot note. Source data.

Stub headings Columnhead Subhead Column head

Caption Subhead Columnhead Column head

Total (rows)

Stub Entries

Total (columns) Foot note : Source note:

TYPES OF TABULATION

SIMPLE TABULATION

COMPLEX TABULATION

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Simple : shows data about one or more groups of independent questions. Complex: shows data about two or more categories having some inter-relationship.

(1) Double Tabulation or Two-way Tabulation: When the data are tabulated according to two characteristics at a time. It is said to be double tabulation or two-way tabulation. For Example: Tabulation of data on population of world classified by two characteristics like Religion and Gender. (2) Three way Tabulation: When the data are tabulated according to three characteristics, it is said to be complex tabulation. For Example: Tabulation of data on population of world classified by three characteristics like Religion, Gender and Literacy.

(3) Manifold Tabulation: When the data tabulated according to several inter-related characteristics it is said to be manifold table. For example: religion, gender, literacy, age, income etc.

CROSS TABULATION
Cross tabulation is the process of creating a contingency table from the multivariate frequency distribution of statistical variables. Heavily used in survey research, cross tabulations (or crosstabs for short) can be produced by a range of statistical packages, including some that are specialized for the task. Survey weights often need to be incorporated. Unweighted tables can be easily produced by some spreadsheets and other business intelligence tools, where they are commonly known as pivot tables.

Definition: A matrix display of the categories of two nominal scaled variables, containing frequency counts of number of subjects in each bivariate category is called a contingency table. The following table lists the gender and the handedness for a sample population of 12 individuals:
Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Female Male Male Female Female Male Male Male Female Female Male Female Gender Handedness Right-handed Left-handed Right-handed Right-handed Right-handed Right-handed Left-handed Right-handed Right-handed Left-handed Right-handed Right-handed

Cross-tabulation leads to the following contingency table:

Left-handed Males Females Total 2 1 3

Right-handed 4 5 9 6 6 12

Total

If you want to better understand how two different survey items inter-relate, then crosstab analysis is the answer. If you have ever used pivot tables in Excel, then you are already familiar with cross tabulation.

The benefits of cross tabulation are best illustrated with an example.

The screen shots below show examples of the kind of information you get with crosstab analysis.

You can quickly zoom in on "hot spots" and see the most significant relationships between the two items that you select.

In this example from a market research survey, the red shading reveals several things. For example: Notice how there is a clear relationship between age and video game system purchases. Not surprising, but certainly interesting to see it revealed in the data. It is also interesting to see that a large percentage of respondents under 15 plan to purchase a hydration pack - but note that there are only 8 people in this group, so you might want to gather more data before drawing conclusions from what is shown here.

Remember these final tips as you apply this technique to the survey: 1.Formulate Hypothesis - Before you even start looking at the data, you might have some idea of what you expect to find there. Starting with a hypothesis or two is part of the scientific method and a great place to begin your analysis. This is often more effective than just mindlessly digging around looking for anything to pop up. 2.Look for What is NOT There - In the above example, if we had not started with the hypothesis that people with greater incomes would be planning to make more purchases, we would not have noticed that there is actually not a strong relationship between these two things. This is informative information that could easily be overlooked.

3.Look for the Obvious - By looking for and finding obvious relationships (like age and student status), you validate your results and can proceed with greater confidence that the people who completed the survey did so accurately and honestly. 4.Keep an Open Mind - Don't be a slave to your hypotheses. When you see things you don't expect, step back and ask yourself why the results might be as they are. Formulate new hypotheses and test them out to see if you are right. In the example above, you might wonder at first why there are so many people between 19 and 23 with small incomes. When you step back and think about it, the "student hypothesis" becomes a likely possibility.

5.Trust the Data - Part of keeping an open mind. If things don't look the way they are "supposed" to look, the problem is probably not with the data, but rather with your expectations. This is an opportunity to learn something new about your data. 6.Watch the "n" - Be wary of small totals. If there are few respondents in a particular category, you should NOT trust the data, or at least, you should look for much stronger trends before trusting the results. In the first screen shot above, you see that 38% of those under 15 want hydration packs.

OBJECTIVES OF TABULATION

To simplify complex data. To economize space. To facilitate comparison. To facilitate statistical analysis. To save time. To help refernce.

ADVANTAGES OF TABULATION

Clarifies the object. Simplifies the complex data. Economic space. Facilitates the comparison. Helps in references. Depict the trend.

DISADVANTAGES OF TABULATION
Complicated process. Each and every data cannot be put into table. Lack of flexibility.

GENERALLY ACCEPTED PRINCIPLES OF TABULATION.

Every table should have a clear ,concise and adequate title. It should be given a distinct number to facilitate easy reference. Column (captions) and row (stubs) headings should be clear and brief. Units of measurements under each heading should be indicated. Explanatory footnotes and the source should be indicated just below the table.

The lines ,to separate the data under one class should be dark and thick enough. Best to approximate figures before tabulation. All column figures should be properly aligned and decimal points ,(+) , (- ) should be aligned too. Ditto marks to be avoided. Total of rows should be placed in extreme right column and that of column should be placed at the bottom. Should be clear, concise, accurate and simple.