Ergonomics and Human Factors

Chapters: 22. Introduction to Ergonomics and Human Factors 23. Physical Ergonomics: Work Physiology and Anthropometry 24. Cognitive Ergonomics: The Human Sensory System and Information Processing 25. The Physical Work Environment 26. Occupational Safety and Health
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Part V

Introduction to Ergonomics and Human Factors

Chapter 22
Sections: 1. Overview of Ergonomics 2. Human-Machine Systems 3. Topic Areas in Ergonomics

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Human Factors
 Human factors is synonymous with ergonomics  Ergonomics emphasizes work physiology and anthropometry  Europe industrial work systems  Human factors emphasizes experimental psychology and systems engineering  U.S. military work systems

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Physical and Cognitive Demands

Most work activities require a combination of physical and cognitive exertions

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

PHYSICAL DEMANDS

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

MENTAL DEMANDS

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

What is Ergonomics?
ERGONOMICS

Ergo (WORK) 

Nomos (LAW)
Study of Human at work

worker
 Fitting the task to the worker
(Chaffin and Andersson, 1984)

workplace

Job design

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Objectives in Ergonomics
 Greater ease of interaction between user and machine  Avoid errors and mistakes  Greater comfort and satisfaction in use of the equipment  Reduce stress and fatigue  Greater efficiency and productivity  Safer operation  Avoid accidents and injuries

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

SAMPLE ILLUSTRATION

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Methods Engineering vs. Ergonomics

Emphasis in Methods Engineering Efficiency Cost reduction Labor reduction Workplace layout Facility layout Elimination of waste One best way Emphasis in Ergonomics and Human Factors Safety Comfort Interaction between human and equipment Workplace environment Fitting the work to the individual Reduction of human errors Accident avoidance

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Ergonomics Application Areas

 Work system design  Objectives: safety, accident avoidance, improved functional performance  Also includes environment such as lighting  Product design  Objectives: safety, comfort, user-friendly, mistake proof, avoidance of liability lawsuits

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

LIGHTING

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

PRODUCT DESIGN

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Ergonomists What They Do

 Research on human capabilities and limitations  Discover the characteristics of human performance, e.g., how much can an average worker lift?  Design and engineering applications  Use the research findings to design better tools and work methods

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Fitting the Person to the Job

 Considers workers physical and mental aptitudes in employment decisions  For example, using worker size and strength as criteria for physical work  Common philosophy prior to ergonomics  FPJ is still important  For example, educational requirements for technical positions

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

LIFTING REQUIREMENTS

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Fitting the Job to the Person

 Opposite of FPJ  Philosophy: design the job so that any member of the work force can perform it  Why the FJP philosophy has evolved:  Changes in worker skill requirements  Demographic changes (e.g. more women in the workforce)  Social and political changes (e.g., equal opportunity laws)

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Human-Machine Systems
  Basic model in ergonomics Defined as a combination of humans and equipment interacting to achieve some desired result Types of human-machine systems: 1. Manual systems 2. Mechanical systems 3. Automated systems

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Human-Machine Interactions

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

System Components  The human  The equipment  The environment

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Human Components
 Human senses - to sense the operation  Vision, hearing, touch, taste, and smell  Human brain - for information processing  Thinking, planning, calculating, making decisions, solving problems  Human effectors - to take action  Fingers, hands, feet, and voice

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Machine Components
 The process function or operation performed by human-machine system  Displays - to observe the process  Direct observation for simple processes  Artificial displays for complex processes  Controls - to actuate and regulate the process  Steering wheel, computer keyboard

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Environmental Components
 Physical environment  Location and surrounding lighting, noise, temperature, and humidity  Social environment  Co-workers and colleagues at work  Immediate supervisors  Organizational culture  Pace of work

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Topic Areas in Ergonomics

    Physical ergonomics Cognitive ergonomics The physical work environment Occupational safety and health

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Physical Ergonomics
 How the human body functions during physical exertion  Physiology vital processes carried out by living organisms and how their constituent tissues and cells function  How physical dimensions of the body affect capabilities of worker  Anthropometry physical dimensions of the human body

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Cognitive Ergonomics
 Concerned with the capabilities of the human brain and sensory system while performing information processing activities  Human cognitive processes include:  Sensing and perception  Use of memory  Response selection and execution

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Physical Work Environment

 Visual environment  Lighting levels and workplace design  Auditory environment  Intensity and duration of noise  Climate  Air temperature, humidity, air movement, and radiation

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Occupational Safety and Health

 Occupational safety concerned with the avoidance of industrial accidents  One-time events that cause injury or fatality  Occupational Health concerned with avoiding diseases and disorders caused by exposure to hazardous materials or conditions  Develop after prolonged periods of exposure  May take years before symptoms reveal the onset of the malady
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Ergonomic related injuries

       May be called: CTDs (cumulative trauma disorders) RSIs (repetitive stress injuries) RMIs (repetitive motion injuries) Which are all considered: MSDs (musculoskeletal disorders) MSDs can affect muscles, tendons, nerves, joints and spinal disks.

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Common types of MSDs

        Tendonitis Carpal Tunnel Syndrome Tennis Elbow Neck and Back injuries Strains/Sprains Bursitis Thoracic Outlet Syndrome Trigger finger

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Risk factors and causes of MSDs

Task Physical Characteristics  Repetition  Force  Posture  Contact trauma  Velocity/acceleration  Duration  Segmental Vibration  Recovery Time  Heavy Dynamic exertion
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Risk factors and causes of MSDs

Environmental Characteristics  Heat Stress  Cold Stress  Whole Body Vibration  Lighting  Noise

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Identifying Risk Factors

 Conditions or circumstances that increase the chances of developing a MSD.  The likelihood of developing an injury is dependent on the frequency and duration of exposure to risk factors.  Both occupational and personal risk factors can affect an individuals well being at home or work.

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Repetition
 Occurs when the same or similar movements are performed frequently.  Repetition can also occur when different tasks are performed if those tasks have the same movements.  Injury may result from repetition when the tissues do not have adequate time to recover.

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Force
 Force is the amount of physical effort required by a person to do a task or maintain control of tools or equipment.  A pinch grip produces 3-5 times more force on the tendons in the wrist than a grip with the whole hand.  With excessive force the muscles are contracting much harder than normal, this can lead to stress on the muscles, tendons and joints.
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Awkward Posture

 Is a deviation from the neutral body position.  A neutral body position is safest and most efficient position in which to work.  Awkward posture puts stress on muscles, tendons and joints.  Wrist, shoulder, neck and low back
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Static Posture
 Static posture occurs when one position is held for a prolonged period of time.  The muscles will become fatigued from a lack of blood flow during a static posture.  This fatigue can lead to discomfort and even injury.

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Contact Trauma

 Local mechanical stress generated from sustained contact between the body and an external object  Local mechanical stress generated from shock impact

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Velocity/Acceleration

 Angular velocity/angular acceleration is the speed of body part motion and the rate of change of speed of body part motion, respectively  Mean wrist flexion/extension of 490 deg/sec in low risk jobs and 820 deg/sec in high risk jobs (Marras and
Schoenmarklin, 1991, 1993)

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Duration

 Time quantification of exposure to a risk factor, minutes or hours per day or as the years of exposure to a risk factor or a job

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Segmental Vibration

   

Cause vascular insufficiency of the hands/fingers Raynauds disease or vibration white finger Interfere with sensory receptor feedback Strong association between CTS & segmental vibration

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Recovery Time

 Time quantification of rest, performance of low stress activity, or performance of an activity that allows a strained body area to rest.  Short work pauses have reduced perceived discomfort (Hagberg and Sundelin, 1986)  Rest periods between exertions have reduced perfromance decrement (Caldwell, 1970)

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Heavy Dynamic Exertion

 Muscle demand for metabolites can not be met (metabolic energy expenditure rate exceeds the bodys energy)  Localized fatigue tired/sore muscles  Whole body fatigue (from long-term heavy carrying/lifting/climbing stairs)

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

What you can do to prevent injury.

    Develop an Ergonomics program. Take proper breaks. Health and Fitness. Be aware of your hobbies away from work.

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Adjusting the Workstation

 Adjust the Chair.  Adjust reach requirements.  Adjust focal requirements.

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Correct the Environment

 Check lighting, noise and temperature.  Check work pace and stress levels.  Check work processes.

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Improve Posture and Habits

 Modify wrist/hand motions  Improve neck and back postures  Consider personal preferences

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Personal Protective Equipment

 PPE acts as a barrier between a person and a hazard.  PPE is only appropriate in situations when engineering or administrative controls cannot be implemented.  Back belts and other braces are not considered PPE. These devices should not be used in place of incorrect work techniques.

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.