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Seismic Waves
wavelength = velocity frequency
f = 35Hz, v = 2700m/s
Any continuing constant cyclic phenomenon may be represented graphically by a sine or cosine wave. Each circle can be described by the amplitude and the wavelength.
77m
The amplitude is the peak value to which each cycle rises or falls in reference to a base line. The wavelength is the distance from peak to peak of one full cycle. Wavelength measured in time is period of oscillation (frequency = no. of cycles per second). Phase is the point in the cycle at which the sequence started These three coordinates are sufficient to describe each frequency component.
Information Theory I
Complex signals are composed of the sum of a number of elementary wave forms, each at some constant amplitude and frequency, starting at some defined phase angle. Two frequencies a base frequency and a harmonic twice the base can be added together to produce a signal different in appearance from either of the components. Changing the amplitude of either of the components will immediately affect the appearance of the output. See handouts for sketches
Information Theory II
Addition of more frequencies will produce still more complex signals. The sum of frequencies representing two, four and eight periodic cycles over some interval will itself be periodic, repeating the output waveform twice over the interval. For frequencies of 2, 4, 8 Hz, periodicity is 0.5 sec. ( 2 times in one sec and once is 0.5 sec.)
The output from the summation of a number of periodic components will itself be periodic over the interval into which all of the component wavelengths will divide evenly
In addition to variation in the amplitude and frequency, the phase of each component may vary.
Information Theory IV
A time domain and frequency domain description of the same signal are known as the transform pair. Observations: Frequencies near 30Hz are most dominant. Absence of frequencies below 5Hz (low cut filter). The band of energy between 5 and 10Hz has high amplitude. Loss of high frequencies with increasing reflection time. (What is the impact of high frequencies). 5. Individual component signals visible before the time break but flat on the summed output.
The ability to separate a signal into its component parts is a powerful tool for analysis and operation. The Fourier transform is completely linear. An operation in one domain has an equivalent in the other One and only one value of amplitude and phase defines each frequency Component in the transform of the seismic trace.
1. 2. 3. 4.
Information Theory V
Vector Analysis
Each frequency component may be considered as a vector of length equal to the amplitude and directed to the corresponding phase angle. The sum of two vectors will produce the amplitude and phase of the output frequency component. This applies to any number of components. Advantages of Fourier Transform 1. Quantitative analyses and comparisons of several related signals. 2. Modification of signals by removal or change of specified components of the signal in a controlled manner. 3. Determination of changes produced in a signal as it passes through a given process.
Information Theory VI
Increasing the frequency components (adding higher frequencies to the Fourier synthesis) gives a compressed signal in the time domain if the zero phase character is unchanged. If all the frequencies in the inverse Fourier transformation are included, then the resulting wavelet becomes a spike. Therefore, a spike is characterized as the in-phase synthesis of all frequencies from zero to the Nyquist. For all frequencies, the amplitude spectrum is of a spike in unity, while its phase spectrum is zero. Pictures.
Sampling Theory I
Once a continuous function is sampled all information between the samples is lost. Therefore the signal must be sampled often enough to make sure the set of samples truly represent the signal. The sampling interval is the rate in time at which the signal is sampled. Typical values vary between 1 4ms A fundamental rule: Two cycles per second must be taken if any given frequency is to be defined properly. The sampling rate must be at least twice the frequency to be sampled. This sets a mathematical limit of the highest frequency to be sampled. Highest frequency which can be defined correctly is Nyquist frequency Frequencies higher than Nyquist frequency corresponding to a given sample rate will appear on the frequency spectrum having frequency equal to diff between signal frequency and the sampling frequency. Signal frequencies outside the limit fold back into the frequency sprectrum .
Sampling Theory II
Filters are designed to remove any frequency above the Nyquist frequency . If sampling rate is t the Nyquist freq. is 1/(2 t) If t = 2ms Nq = 250Hz What of 4ms, 8ms The coarser the sampling interval, the smoother the signal (resulting from the loss of higher frequencies). If the adequate sampling interval is not used the higher frequencies in the seismic trace will be lost. Frequencies above the Nyquist frequency fold back into the spectrum (aliasing) Formula for aliased frequency.
By keeping the amplitude spectrum unchanged, the wavelet shape can be changed by modifying the phase spectrum.
Shot
CMP
Stack
Migration
Shot Domain
Offset
Time
shot domain
CMP domain
stack domain
migration domain
Sort:
CMP
shot domain CMP domain stack domain migration domain
Stack Domain
Offset Offset CMP
Apply NMO
Stack
Time
Time
Time
CMP
shot domain
CMP domain
stack domain
migration domain
Seismic Processing
Velocity Analysis/NMO
NMO Basics - I
A shot record is the collection of seismic traces generated when one source shoots into many receivers. Dots below the reflector show subsurface reflection points (halfway between the source and a receiver midpoint). These are shown as black dots above the acquisition surface As the offset increases, so does the travel time from source to receiver. This characteristic delay of reflection times with increasing offset is called normal moveout.
NMO Basics - II
Reflections can be seen in real data along with other kinds of events. There are receivers on both sides of the shot shown. The right side has been marked-up to identify different kinds of events direct arrivals (p-wave, s-wave, air wave, surface wave), head waves and (a few) reflections. The left side is uninterpreted. The reflection events have a hyperbolic shape characteristic of normal moveout.
t(x) = traveltime along raypath x = offset v = velocity of medium above t(0) = travel time along vertical path
NMO Correction
Appropriate velocity 2264m/s Overcorrection Too low velocity 2000m/s Undercorrection Too high velocity 2500m/s
Are complicated functions that depend on layer thicknesses and interval velocities. The rms velocity down to the reflector on which depth point D is situated is defined as i
2 vrms
(t i
t ( 0) !
(t
k !1
By making the small spread approximation (offset small compared to depth), the series in the equation can be truncated as follows
NMO Stretching
As a result of NMO correction a frequency distortion occurs, particularly for shallow events at large offsets. This is called NMO Stretching. The waveform with dominant period T is stretched so that its period T after NMO Correction is greater than T. Stretching is a frequency distortion in which events are shifted to lower frequencies.
Stretching is quantified as
f/f =
tNMO/t(0)
The stretching is normally confined to large offset and shallow times. Muting is applied to correct for the stretching.
NMO Stretching I
NMO Stretching II
Velocity Analysis
The sonic log is a direct measurement of velocity while the seismic method is an indirect method. Based on these two types of velocity information, you can derive a large number of velocities: Interval (velocity in an interval b/w twp reflectors) Apparent Average Root mean square (rms) Instantaneous Phase Group NMO Stacking Migration
The velocity that can reliably be derived from seismic is the velocity that yields the best stack.
Velocity Analysis
Interval velocity is the average velocity in a interval between two reflectors. Factors affecting interval velocity: Pore shape Pore pressure Pore fluid saturation Confining pressure Temperature
Velocity increases with confining pressure i.e. with depth (the most important) Possibility of velocity inversion due to pore pressure.
Velocity Analysis
4 5
Velocity (km/s)
S
Velocity (km/s)
Vp Vp
D 3
S D
Vs
2
Rounded pores
Vs
Pores as microcracks
0.2
Confining Pressure (kbar)
0.6
Velocity increases rapidly with confining pressure at small confining pressures, then gradually levels off P wave velocity is greater that S wave velocity regardless on confining pressure The saturated rock sample (S) has a higher P-wave velocity that the dry (D) sample why? At higher confining pressures the saturated and dry samples have the same P-wave velocity P-wave velocity in the saturated sample does not change as rapidly as the dry sample Fluids do not support S-waves
Velocity Analysis
t2-x2 method - from the equation:
Velocity Analysis II
Velocity Analysis
Constant Velocity Scans Display NMO corrected gathers from different velocities in panels. The most reliable velocity gives the best stack. Stacking velocities are estimated from data stacked with the range of constant velocities on the basis of stacked event amplitude and continuity. Velocity spectrum Move from the offset vs. two way time domain to the stacking velocity vs. two way zero offset time domain.
Velocity Analysis IV
Velocity Analysis I
Velocity Analysis
Factors Affecting Velocity Estimates: Spread Length Stacking fold S/N ratio Muting Time Gate Length Velocity Sampling Choice of Coherency Measure Time departures from hyperbolic movement Bandwidth of Data
Velocity Analysis
Spread Length: Adequate resolution in the velocity spectrum can only be obtained with a sufficiently large spread that spans both near and far offsets. Lack of large offset means lack of significant moveout required for velocity discrimination. Stacking fold: The lower the stacking fold the lower the resolution of velocity analysis S/N ratio: Noise on seismic data has a direct effect on the quality of a velocity spectrum. The accuracy of the velocity spectrum is limited when the S/N ratio is poor. Muting: Muting reduced fold for shallow data and has an adverse effect on the velocity spectrum Time Gate Length If the gate is chosen too small, computational costs increase. If too coarse the spectrum suffers from lack of temporal resolution. The gate length is chosen between one-half and one times the dominant period of the signal, typically 20 to 40ms.
Velocity Analysis
Velocity Sampling Velocity range should correspond to those velocities to those of primary reflections present on the CMP gather. Velocity increment must not be too coarse. Choice of Coherency Measure Compare different gathers. True departures from hyperbolic moveout Special correction is required. Bandwidth of Data Choose a wide corridor to cover velocity variations vertically and laterally in the survey area.
For horizontal layers, CDP = CMP. For a dipping layer the two are not the same.
vNMO = v/cos J
Proper stacking of a dipping event requires a velocity that is greater than the velocity of the medium above the reflector.
Why stacking?
To improve S/N ratio Obtain zero offset / normal incidence trace Data reduction Attenuate multiples Obtain velocity information
shot domain
CMP domain
stack domain
migration domain
Multiples
Data identing and editing Noise reduction Correction for elevation, source depth, shallow anomalies Compensation of loss of amplitude Compensation for loss of bandwidth Multiple removal Imaging Wavelet processing
Wavenumber
Temporal frequency is no. of cycles per sec. The fourier dual is spatial frequency which is no. of cycles per unit distance or wavenumber. In a dipping event, count the number of peaks within a unit distance say 1km. along the horizontal direction. Nyquist wavenumber is [1/(2* trace interval)] = 20 cycles/km since trace spacing is 25m. Compute wavenumber in section on next page.
Compute total time dip across section (23traces/section) x (15ms/traces) = 345 ms/section Convert this to cycles by dividing by the temporal period: (345ms/section)/[(1000ms/s)/(12 cycles/sec)] = (4.14 cycles/sec) Spatial extent is 575m therefore, wavenumber is: (4.14cycles/sec)/(0.575km/section) = 7.2 cycles/km.
6 gathers containing 6 Hz monofrequency events with dips ranging from 0 to 15ms/trace. Trace spacing is 25m. Bottom row: Their respective amplitude spectra. Dots represent mapping of events on the gathers. +ve dips are defined as downdip from left to right so all events map to the +ve quandrant. Zero dip is equivalent to zero wavenumber.
24Hz
36Hz
48Hz
60Hz
72Hz
Six gathers, each formed by summing gathers of the like dips in earlier pictures (i.e. similar dips but different frequencies). Trace spacing is 25m. Amplitude spectra shown in bottom row.
A signal with three frequency components A, B, and C, sampled at three different rates, 2, 4, and 8 ms. Frequency aliasing occurs at coarser sampling interevals.
The offsets in the above section increment by 25 m, giving a spatial range of (500/25) 20 cycles per kilometre. Here then is the FK analysis of the above shot, temporal frequencies from bottom to top, and spatial frequencies across the top. The amplitude scale is in dB, from white through blue to yellow and red. You can see the (temporal) band limited nature of this data (from about 10 to 90 Hz), some strong dips (probably the first breaks) and even some spatial aliasing (the yellow line ending at the "W" of "Wavenumber
Here's what the above filter looks like in three dimensions - a wedge shaped filter (these filters are sometimes called "pie-slices") with sharp edges. In practice we would normally smooth the edges a little to avoid sharp changes in the frequency domain - these introduce long anomalies in the time domain.
One common way of reducing the effects of a heavy FK filter is to "mix-back" some of the original (unfiltered) data with the output. We are generally allowed to make this mix-back time and space variant, which allows us to modify the filter response for different parts of the record. We determine this, as usual, by testing
TOPO
Pre-processing
shot domain
CMP domain
stack domain
migration domain
De-absorption Statics Deconvolution Ground Roll Removal Source & Survey Matching Zero-Phasing
shot domain
CMP domain
stack domain
migration domain
Shot static
shot domain
CMP domain
stack domain
migration domain
Source statics
Receiver statics
shot domain
CMP domain
stack domain
migration domain
M. Bevaart, NAM
Successful Statics
Stack with simple statics
Seismic Processing
Deconvolution
Signal Theory
A pure signal having some well defined shape or characteristic is transmitted from a source and is later received, contaminated by noise, at some distant recording point. The problem That of retrieval The fundamental concept of seismic exploration is to send into the earth a short signal which is then reflected back from a boundary between two units. The impulse response of a system is the output signal when a spike is the input signal.
Source 1
Response 1, 0 ,
One unit time later, the impulsive source generates an implosion with amplitude - Time of onset Reflectivity Sequence 1, 0,
Source -
Response -, 0 , -
Source 1 1 - -
Response 1 1 0 - - 0
0 1 Superposition i.e
- -
* Is called convolution
1 - -
Convolution of a source wavelet (1, 0, ) with the reflectivity sequence (1, -) Reflectivity Output Sequence Response 1 - 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
1 - -
1
x x x
Convolution
3 1 2 3 1 1
Output
Identical but wavelet 2 is shifted by two samples wrt. wavelet 1. The time lag at which they are most similar can be determined. Carry out what was done for convolution on wavelet 1 without reversing wavelet 2. 2 -1 1 2 0 0 1 -1 0 0 -1 1 2 0 0 Output -2 1 6 1 -2 0 0 0 0 Lag -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
0 0 2 1 0 0 2 0 0 0
-1 1 2 0 0
-1 1 2 0 0
-1 1 2 0 0
-1 1 -1 2 1 -1 0 2 1 -1
Cross Correlation
1
x
2
x
3
x
Output
1 10 11 14 11 8 3 1 1
3 6 3
1 3 2 1
6 4 2
9 6 3
3 2 1
3 2 1
0 0
2 1 -1 0 2 1 -1 2 1 2
0 0 -1 1 2
0 0 -1 1 2
0 0 -1 1 2
0 0 0 -1 0 0 1 -1 0 0
A zero phase band limited wavelet can used to filter a seismic trace. The output contains only those frequencies present in the wavelet. This is called zero phase frequency filtering. Multiply the amplitude spectrum of the seismic trace by that of the filter operator (convolution in the time domain).
Construct a zero phase wavelet with an amplitude spectrum that meets one of these: Band pass (to eliminate groundroll and high frequency ambient noise) Band reject High pass (low cut) Low pass (hight cut
shot domain
CMP domain
stack domain
migration domain
M. Bevaart, NAM
Filtering
Crosscorrelation of a pure sine or cosine wave with a signal will extract that same frequency component from the signal. Information regarding any other components of the signal will be lost from the output. This is used to advantage in band pass filtering In autocorrelation the signal is correlated with itself i.e. square each component of the amplitude spectrum and subtract the phase spectrum from itself which will yield a zero phase output.
Deconvolution
Stacking can remove noise but there is still the problem of the filtering caused by the earth. The process by which the attenuated elements are restored is called deconvolution. The impulse response of the earth contains primary reflections (reflectivity series), multiples and noise. It is the process designed to reverse the effects of the passage of the input signal through the earth. It improves the temporal resolution of the seismic data by compressing the basic seismic wavelet. Autocorrelate the signal to get a spike
The earth is made up of horizontal layers of constant velocity The source generates a compressional plane wave that impinges on layer boundaries at normal incidence. Under such circumstances, no shear waves are generated.
Assumption 1 fails in structurally complex areas and assumption 2 implies zero offset. Based on 1 and 2 we have:
R!
NV2 N 1 2 1V NV2 N 1 2 1V
a - sonic log, b - reflection coefficient series, c b in twt domain d impulse response, e synthetic seismogram
Waveform Nonstationarity
As the wavelet travels into the earth, the amplitude level drops (geometric spreading) ans a loss of high frequencies occurs
Noise a pure random series with infinite length has a flat amplitude spectrum and an autocorrelogram that is zero at all lags except the zero lag.
Frequency Domain
(t) =
1, t = 0 0, elsewhere
a(t) =
(t) * w(t)
The z transform
How do we compute the inverse of the seismic wavelet? The z transform is used to mathematically compute the inverse of the seismic wavelet - w(t). If the basic wavelet is a two point time series given by (1, - ), the z transform is defined by the following polynomial W(z) = 1 ( )z
The z transform
The power of variable z is the number of unit time delays associated with each sample in the series. The first term has zero delay, so z is raised to zero power. The second term has unit delay, so z is raised to first power. Hence the z transform of a time series is a polynomial in z, whose coefficients are the values of the time samples. The inverse of the wavelet w(t) is obtained by polynomial division of the z transform.
filter operator a(t). Note it has an infinite number of coefficients, although they decay rapidly. As more terms are included in the inverse filter, the output is closer to being
a spike. Convolve with more terms in the inverse filter
The z transform
Consider the two point operator [1, ()] Convolution of this operator with the wavelet yields [1, 0, (-)]. The ideal result is a zero delay spike (1,0,0). Although not ideal the actual result is spikier than the input wavelet, [1, (-)]. Convolution of the truncated inverse filter [1, ()] with the input wavelet [1, (-)] 1
1
Convolution of the truncated inverse filter [1, (), ] with the input wavelet [1, (-)] 1
1
-
1 1
Output 1 0 -
-
1 1
Output 1 0 0 -1/8
The three point filter is spikier. As more terms are included in the the inverse filter, the output is closer c;loser to being a spike at zero lag.
The z transform
The inverse of the input wavelet [1, (- )] has coefficients that rapidly decay to zero. What of the inverse of the input wavelet [(-), 1)]? Here the polynomial division gives the divergent series (-2, -4, -8 ..). Truncate this and convolve with the two point operator. The result is far from the desired output. Convolution of the truncated inverse filter [(-2, -4)] with the input wavelet [(-),1] -
-4 -2 -4 1 -2 -4 Output 1 0 -4
1
b a b
-
a b
-2
Desired Output 1 0 0
The inverse filter coefficients increase in time rather than decay! What happens if 8 is kept as one of the coefficients?
Minimum Phase
1 2
Error in converting [1, (- )] to a spike is less than that of [(- ) ,1]. The first wavelet is closer to being a zero delay wavelet (1,0,0) than the second wavelet. The second wavelet is closer to being a delayed spike (0,1,0). The error is reduced if the desired output closely resembles the energy distribution in the input series. Wavelet 1 has more energy at the onset, wavelet 2 more energy at the end. Minimum Phase A wavelet is minimum phase if its energy is maximally concentrated at its onset A wavelet is maximum phase if its energy is maximally concentrated at its end In all in-between situations the wavelet is mixed phase A wavelet is defined as a transient waveform with a finite duration i.e. it is realizable. A minimum phase wavelet is one-sided in that it is zero before t = 0. A wavelet that is zero for t < 0 is called causal. A minimum phase is causal and realizable.
Minimum Phase
Three wavelets with the same amplitude spectrurn, but with a different phase spectra. As a result, their shapes differ. The wavelet at the top has more energy concentrated at the onset, middle has its energy concentrated at the centre and the wavelet at the bottom has its energy concentrated at the end.
Minimum Phase
Consider the following four 3-point wavelets A: (4, 0, -1) B: (2, 3, -2) C: (-2, 3, 2) D: (-1, 0, 4) Compute the cummulative energy of each wavelet at any one time (add the square of the amplitudes). 0 1 2 A 16 16 17 B 4 13 17 C 4 13 17 D 1 1 17 A builds up energy rapidly, has the least energy delay while D builds up energy slowly and has the largest energy delay. A minimum phase wavelet has the least energy delay.
Minimum Phase
Amplitude spectrum for wavelets A,B,C,D (all have same amplitude spectrum)
A has the minimum phase change that is why it is referred to as minimum phase. Wavelet D has the maximum phase change across the frequencies and is referred to as maximum phase. C and B mixed phase.
Minimum Phase
The autocorrelations of the wavelets give the same output. The zero lag of the autocorrelation is equal to the total energy contained in each wavelet (i.e. 17 units). The process by which the seismic wavelet is compressed to a zero-lag spike is called spiking deconvolution. Performance depends on filter length and whether the input wavelet is minimum phase. The spiking deconvolution operator is the inverse of the wavelet. If the wavelet were minimum phase, then we get a stable inverse which is also minimum phase. The term stable means that the filter coefficients make a convergent series i.e. the coefficients decrease decrease in time (and vanish at time t = ) therefore filter has finite energy. This is the case for wavelet [1, (- )] with an inverse [1, ( ), ( ), ]. The inverse is a stable spiking deconvolution filter. If the filter were maximum phase, then it does not have a stable inverse. This is the case for the wavelet [(- ) ,1], whose inverse is given by the divergent series [-2, -4, -8, ..]. A mixed phase does not have a stable inverse. Assumption 7: The seismic wavelet is minimum phase. Therefore it has a minimum phase inverse.
Weiner filters
Filters are designed to make the output approximate a spike as much as possible. The least squares error between the actual and desired outputs is minimum Spiking deconvolution is when the output is a zero lag spike. It is also identical to least squares inverse filter. Predictive deconvolution is when the output can be predicted given a particular type of input. The idea is to predict the value of the input at some particular time.
Deconvolution - Example
Undeconvolved 0 Deconvolved
1.0
2.0
(-)2R2P
Without deconvolution
shot domain CMP domain stack domain migration domain
With deconvolution
Seismic Processing
Migration
Migration
Migration
Migration moves dipping reflectors into their true subsurface positions and collapses diffraction, thereby delineating detailed subsurface features such as fault planes. In this respect migration can be viewed as a form of spatial deconvolution that increases spatial resolution. Note that migration does not displace horizontal events, rather, it moves dipping events in the updip direction and collapses diffractions, thus enabling delineation of faults. The goal of migration is to make the stacked section appear similar to geologic cross section across the seismic line. The migration that produces a migrated time section is called time migration. When the lateral velocity gradients are significant, time migration does not produce the true subsurface picture. Instead depth migration is used, the output of which is a depth section.
Migration
a - CMP stack, b Migration, c sketch of of prominent diffraction D and dipping event before (B) migration and after (A) migration.
Migration
Migration
Time Migration
Depth Migration - B
Migration Types
Stack Time Migration Depth Migration Prestack Partial Migration (PSPM) Depth Migration Before Stack 3-D Time Migration After Stack 3-D Depth Migration After Stack The section the interpreter always wants Diffractions or structural dip Structural dip with large lateral velocity variation Lots of conflicting dips with different stacking velocities or large lateral velocity gradients Strong/large lateral velocity gradients that cannot be treated properly by stacking Needed when the stack contains dipping events that are out of the profile plane (crossdips) Needed when the problem of strong lateral velocity gradients involves 3-D structural complexity When PSPM fails and stack contains crossdips Everyones dream if computer time were available and 3-D subsurface velocity model were well known
3-D Time Migration Before Stack 3-D Depth Migration Before Stack
4 types of migration
post-stack time post-stack depth pre-stack time pre-stack depth
shot domain
CMP domain
stack domain
migration domain
Time migration
Cannot handle large lateral velocity contrasts Cannot handle large ray-bending effects No need for a model
Depth migration
Can handle lateral velocity contrasts and raybending Needs a velocity model
Both time and depth migration can work on post- and pre-stack data.
shot domain
CMP domain
stack domain
migration domain
Migration Principles
Reflection on the time section CD must be migrated to its true position CD. Observations: 1. 2. 3. The dip angle of the reflector in the geologic section is greater than in the time section: thus migration steepens reflections. The length of the reflector, as seen in the geologic section, is shorter than in the time section; thus migration shortens reflections. Migration moves reflectors in the updip direction.
Exercise From the exercise: 1. Note that the dips after migration are greater than before migration. 2. The deeper the event, the more migration takes place e.g at 4s the horizontal displacement is more that 6km and the vertical displacement is 1.6seconds. 3. The horizontal displacement increases with the time of event 4. Displacement is a function of velocity squared (if there is a 20% error in velocity used, event is misplaced by an error of 44%. 5. Vertical displacement also increases with time.
Migration Principles
True subsurface location depth
Consider the dipping reflector CD of the geologic (depth) section. We want to obtain zero offset section along the profile Ox. The first normal incidence arrival from the dipping reflector is recorded at location A. The reflection arrival at location A is indicated by point C.
Migration Principles
d x ! (v t tan U t ) / 4
d t ! t{1 [1 (v 2 tan 2 U t ) / 4]1/ 2 }
tan U t ! tan U t /[1 (v tan U t ) / 4]
Where:
2 2 1/ 2
tanU t ! (t / (x
Migration Principles
Subsurface Model The steeper the dip the more the event moves during migration.
Migration Principles
We see that the dipping event migrates out of the recorded section. The data on a recorded section are not necessarily confined to the subsurface below the seismic line. The converse is also true. The structure below on a seismic line may not be recorded on the seismic section. In areas of structural dip, the line length must be chosen considering the displacements of dipping layers. The areal surface coverage must be larger than the subsurface coverage of interest. Recording time must be long enough What of curved reflecting surfaces? (See Diagrams) Synclines broaden and anticlines compress Higher velocities mean more migration and hence smaller anticlines Why does a syncline look like a bowtie.
Before Migration
After Migration
Kirchhoff Migration
The gap in the barrier acts as Huygens secondary source, causing the circular wavefronts that approach the beachline. Waves recorded along the beach generated by Huygens secondary source (the gap in the barrier has a hyperbolic traveltime trajectory.
Kirchhoff Migration
A point that represents Huygens secondary source in the depth section, maps onto a diffraction hyperbola on the zero offset time section (b). The vertical axis in this section is two-way time.
Superposition of the zero offset response (b) of a discrete number of Huygens secondary source in the depth section (a).
Kirchhoff Migration
Superposition of the zero offset response (b) of a continuum of Huygens secondary source in the depth section (a).
Principles of migration based on semicircle superposition. (a) Zero-offset section (trace interval, 25m; constant velocity, 2500m/s), (b) migration, A point in time section (a) maps onto a semicircle in depth section (b).
Kirchhoff Migration
The first method of migration is based on the superposition of semicircles, while the second method is based on the summation of amplitudes along hyperbolic paths (diffraction summation method). The summation is a straightforward summation of amplitudes along the hyperbolic trajectory whose curvature is governed by the velocity function.
Principles of migration based on diffraction summation. (a) Zero-offset section (trace interval, 25m; constant velocity, 2500m/s), (b) migration, The amplitude at B along the flank is mapped onto apex A by the hyperbolic traveltime equation.
Kirchhoff Migration
The migration scheme based on the semicircle superposition consists of mapping the amplitude at a sample in input (x,t) space of the unmigrated time section onto a semicircle in output (x,z) space. The migrated section is formed as a result of the superposition of the many semicircles. The migration scheme based on the diffraction summation consists of searching the input data in the (x,t) space for energy that would have resulted if a diffracting source (Huygens secondary source) were located at a particular point in the output (x,z) space. This search is carried out bu asumming the amplitudes in the (x,t) space along the diffraction curve that corresponds to Huygens secondary source at each point in the (x,z) space. The result of the summation is then mapped onto the corresponding point in the (x,z) space.
Kirchhoff Migration
Velocity function: Compute t(x). Amplitude at location B is placed on the output section at location A corresponding to the output time t(0). Consider three factors associated with the amplitude and phase behaviour of the waveform along the diffraction hyperbola. Amplitude at A is stronger than B (B is at an oblique angle obliquity factor). Spherical divergence. B versus C. (wavefront at C is weaker). Restoration of resulting waveform from superposition must be restored in both phase and amplitude. These 3 factors must be considered.
Kirchhoff Migration
The diffraction summation method of migration which incorporates these three factors, is called the Kirchhoff migration. To perform this, multiply the input data by the obliquity and spherical spreading factors. Then apply the filter with the above specifications and sum along the hyperbolic path that is defined by the velocity function equation. Place the result on the migrated section a time t(0) corresponding to the apex of the hyperbola. The rms velocity is used.
CMP
Time
Migration (seismic): An inversion operation involving rearrangement of seismic information elements so that reflections and diffractions are plotted at their true locations.
shot domain CMP domain stack domain migration domain
Migration Domain
CMP
Stack
Time
Migration
shot domain
CMP domain
stack domain
migration domain
NMO corrects for the time delay on an offset trace (assuming zero dip), DMO moves the data to the correct zero-offset trace location, Migration further moves it to the subsurface location. (after Deregowski, 1986)
shot domain
CMP domain
stack domain
migration domain
95% velocities
100% velocities
105% velocities
shot domain
CMP domain
stack domain
migration domain
Inline 7496
Inline 7496
Inline 7496
Inline 7496
PreSDM Model
UNSEA
NSEA
Velocity [m/s]
CHALK
Depth [m]
VLIE
ALTENA
TRIAS
SALT
Successful Reprocessing
Existing product
Reprocessing
24 fold
shot domain CMP domain stack domain
48 fold
migration domain
96 fold
Fold of Coverage
shot domain
CMP domain
stack domain
migration domain
After processing a factor 50 - 100 data reduction: ~ 8 MB per square km Typical survey sizes: 200 - 1000 square km
Annual acquisition volume 15000 sq km (~7500 Gb)