Polynomial and Rational Functions

The Remainder Theorem and the Factor Theorem

The Remainder Theorem If a polynomial function P(x) is divided by x-c, then the remainder equals P(c). The following example illustrates the Remainder Theorem by showing that the remainder of ( x 2  9 x  16) z ( x  3) is the same as Px ! x 2  9 x  16 evaluated at x ! 3 .

Let x = 3 and P(x) = x2 + 9x 16 Then P(3) = (3)2 + 9(3) 16 = 9 + 27 16 = 20

x  12 x  3 x 2  9 x  16 x 2  3x
12 x  16 12 x  36

20
P(3) is equal to the remainder of P(x) divided by (x-3).

Use synthetic Division to Divide the Polynomials Examples: 1. x4 4x2 + 7x +15 by x + 4 2. 5x3 6x2 19 by x - 2 3. Let P(x) = 2x3 + 3x2 + 2x 2. Use the Remainder Theorem to find P(c) for c = -2 and c = . 4. Let P(x) = 2x3 x2 + 3x -1. Use the Remainder Theorem to find P(c) for c = 3.

The Remainder Theorem and the Factor Theorem

The Factor Theorem A polynomial function P(x) has a factor (x - c) if and only if P(c) = 0. That is, (x c) is a factor of P(x) if and only if c is a zero of P. Example 5: Use the synthetic division and the Factor Theorem to determine whether (x + 5) or (x -2) is a factor of P(x) = x4 + x3 21x2 x + 20. Example 6: Use the synthetic division and the Factor Theorem to determine whether (x + 6) is a factor of P(x) = x3 + 4x2 27x 90.

The Remainder of a Polynomial Division

In the division of the polynomial Function P(x) by (x c), the remainder is: equal to P(c). 0 if and only if (x c) is a factor of P. 0 if and only if c is a zero of P. Also, if c is a real number, then the remainder of P(x) (x c) is 0 if and only if (c,0) is an xintercept of the graph of P.

Reduced Polynomials
In example 5, we determined that (x+5) is a factor of the polynomial function P(x) = x4 + x3 21x2 x + 20 and that the quotient of x4 + x3 21x2 x + 20 divided by (x+5) is Q(x) = x3 4x2 x + 4. Thus: P(x) = (x+5) (x3 4x2 x + 4). The quotient Q(x) = x3 4x2 x + 4 is called a reduced polynomial or a depressed polynomial of P(x) because it is a factor of P(x) and its degree is 1 less than the degree of P(x).

Examples: Find a Reduced Polynomial

7. Verify that (x - 3) is a factor of P(x) = 2x3 - 3x2 - 4x -15 and write P(x) as the product of (x -3) and the reduced polynomial Q(x). 8. Verify that (x + 1) is a factor of P(x) = x4 + 5x3 + 3x2 5x 4 and write P(x) as the product (x +1) and the reduced polynomial Q(x).

Polynomial Functions of Higher Degree

Polynomial Function P(x) P(x) = a (degree 0) Graph Horizontal Line through (0, a)

P(x) = ax + b (degree 1), Line with y-intercepts a{ 0 (0, b) and slope a. P(x) = ax2 + bx + c (degree 2), a { 0 Parabola with vertex (-b/2a, P(-b/2a))

Table 4.2 Far-Left Behavior of the Graph of a Polynomial function with Leading term anxn

n is even an > 0 an < 0

Up to left and up to right Down to left and down to right

n is odd
Down to left and up to right Up to left and down to right

Example 9 Determine the Far- Left and Far- Right Behavior of a Polynomial Function
Examine the leading term to determine the far-left and far right of each polynomial function. a. P (x) = x3 x b. S (x) = x4 5/2 x2 + 2 c. T (x) = - 2x3 + x2 + 7x 6 d. U (x) = 9 + 8x2 x4 Examine the leading term to determine the far-left and far-right behavior of the graph of P(x) = -2x3 6x2 + 5x -1.

Relative Minimum and Relative Maximum

If there is an open interval I containing c on which
f(c) e f(x) for all x in I, then f(c)I is a relative minimum of f. f(c) u f(x) for all x in I, then f(c)I is a relative maximum of f.

Real Zeros of a Polynomial Function Ex. 1 Factor to Find the real Zeros of a Polynomial Function Factor to find the three real zeros of . P( x) ! x 3  3 x 2  4 x Solution P(x) can be factored as shown below.
P ( x) ! x 3  3 x 2  4 x

! x( x 2  3x  4 x)
! x( x  1)( x  4)

The real zeros of P(x) are x =0, x =1, and x = -4

Example 2
Factor to find the four real zeros of
P ( x) ! x 4  29 x 2  100

Solution
x 4  29 x 2  100 ! x 2  25 x 2  4 ! x  5 ( x  5)( x  2)( x  2)

The four real zeros of P(x) are -5, -2, 2, and 5.

The Zero Location Theorem

Let P(x) be a polynomial function and let a and b be two distinct real numbers. If P(a) and P(b) have opposite signs, then there is at least one real number c between a and b such that P(c)=0.

Ex.3 Apply the Zero Location Theorem

Use the Zero location Theorem to verify that S ( x) ! x 3  x  2 has a real zero between 1 and 2. Solution Use synthetic division to evaluate S for x = 1 and x = 2. If S changes sign between these two values, then S has a real zero between 1 and 2. The graph of S is continuous because S is a polynomial function. Also, S(1) is negative and S(2) is positive. Thus the Zero Location Theorem indicates that there is a real zero between 1 and 2.

Example 4
Use the Zero location Theorem to verify that

P( x) ! 4 x 3  x  6 x  1
has a real zero between 0 and 1. Solution: Because P is a polynomial function, the graph of P is continuous. Also, P(0)=1 and P(1)=-2 have opposite signs. Thus by the Zero Location Theorem we know that P must have a real zero between 0 and 1.

Polynomial Functions, Real Zeros, Graphs, and Factors (x - c)

If P is a polynomial function and c is a real number, then all of the following statements are equivalent in the sense that if any one statement is true, then they are all true, and if only one statement is false, then they are all false. (x-c) is a factor of P. x c is a real solution of P(x) = 0.

x = c is a real zero of P. (c, 0) is an x-intercept of the graph of y = P(x) Example: S ( x ) ! x 3  2 x 2  5 x  6 has xThe graph of intercepts (-2, 0), (1, 0) and (3, 0). Hence, -2, 1, and 3 are zeros of S, and [x-(-2)], (x-1), and (x-3) are all factors of S.

Even and Odd Powers of (x - c) Theorem If c is a real number and the polynomial function P(x) has (x - c) as a factor exactly k times, then the graph of P will Intersect but not cross the x-axis at (c,0), provided k is an even integer. Cross the x-axis at (c,0), provided k is an odd positive integer.

Example 5: Apply the Even and Odd Powers of (x - c) Theorem

Determine where the graph of P( x) ! ( x  3) ( x  2) 2 ( x  4) 3 crosses the x-axis and where the graph intersects but does not cross the x-axis. Solution The exponents of the factors (x+3) and (x-4) are odd integers. Therefore, the graph of P will cross the xaxis at the intercepts (-3,0) and (4,0). The exponent of the factor (x - 2) is an even integer. Therefore, the graph of P will intersect but not cross the axis at (2, 0).

Zeros of Polynomial Functions

Recall that if P(x) is a polynomial function, then the values of x for which P(x) is equal to 0 are called the zeros of P(x) or the roots of the equation P(x) = 0. A zero of a polynomial function may be a multiple zero.
Definition of Multiple Zeros of a Polynomial Function

- If a polynomial function P(x) has (x - r) as a factor exactly k times, then r is a zero of multiplicity k of the polynomial function P(x).

Number of Zeros of a Polynomial Function

A polynomial function P of degree n zeros, where each zero of multiplicity k is counted k times.

The Rational Zero Theorem

If P( x ) ! an x n  an 1 x n 1  ...  a1 x  a0 has p ( a { 0) and integer coefficients q is a rational zero (in lowest terms) of P, then p is a factor of the constant term a0 and an q is a factor of the leading coefficient
n

Examples:
Use the Rational Zero Theorem to list all possible rational zeros of

P( x) ! 4 x 4  x 3  40 x 2  38 x  12
Use the Rational Zero Theorem to list all possible rational zeros of

P ( x) ! 3x  11x  6 x  8

Upper and Lower Bounds for Real Zeros

A real number b is called an upper bound of the zeros of the polynomial function P if no zero is greater than b. A real number b is called a lower bound of the zeros of the polynomial function P if no zero is less than b.

Upper- and Lower- Bound Theorem

Let P(x) be a polynomial function with real coefficients and a positive leading coefficient. Use synthetic division to divide P(x) by x b, where b is a non-zero real number. Upper bound: If b > 0 and all the numbers in the bottom row of the synthetic division of P by x b are either positive or zero, then b is an upper bound for the real zeros of P.

Lower bound: If b < 0 and all the numbers in the bottom row of the synthetic division of P by x b alternate sign (the number zero can be considered positive or negative), then b is a lower bound for the real zeros of P.

Examples:
According to the Upper- and Lower-Bound Theorem, what is the smallest positive integer that is an upper bound and the largest negative integer that is a lower bound of the real zeros of A. P( x) ! 2 x 3  7 x 2  4 x  14 B.
P ( x) ! x 3  19 x  28

Descartes Rule of Signs

Let P(x) be a polynomial function with real coefficients and with the terms arranged in order of decreasing powers of x. 1. The number of positive real zeros of P(x) is equal to the number of variations in the sign of P(x), or to that number decreased by an even integer. 2. The number of negative real zeros of P(x) is equal to the number of variations in the sign of P(-x), or to that number decreased by an even integer.

Examples:
Use Descartes Rule of Signs to determine both the number of possible positive and the number of possible negative real zeros of each polynomial function:

1. P ( x ) ! x 4  5 x 3  5 x 2  5 x  6 2. P ( x) ! 2 x 5  3x 3  5 x 2  8 x  7 3. P ( x) ! x 3  19 x  30

Guidelines for Finding the Zeros of a Polynomial Function with Integer Coefficients 1. Gather general information. Determine the degree n of the polynomial function. The number of zeros of the polynomial function is at most n. Apply the Descartes Rule of Signs to find the possible number of positive zeros and also the possible number of negative zeros.

2. Check suspects. Apply the Rational Zero Theorem to list the rational numbers that are possible zeros. Use the synthetic division to test the numbers in your list. If you find an upper or a lower bound, then eliminate from your list any number that is greater than the upper bound or less than the lower bound.

3. Work with the reduced polynomials. Each time a zero is found, you obtain a reduced polynomial.
if a reduced polynomial is of degree 2, find its zeros either by factoring or by applying the quadratic formula. If the degree of a reduced polynomial is 3 or greater, repeat the above steps for this polynomial.

Examples:
A. Find the zeros of P( x) ! 3x 4  23x 3  56 x 2  52 x. 16 Solution: 1. Gather general information. The degree of P is 4. Thus the number of zeros of P is at most 4. By Descartes Rule of Signs, there are no positive zeros, and there are either four, two, or no negative zeros. 2. Check suspects. By the Rational Zero Theorem, the possible negative rational zeros of P are p ! 1,2,4,8,16, 1 , 2 , 4 , 8 , 16
q 3 3 3 3 3

Use synthetic division to test the possible rational zeros. (Show that -4 is a zero of P.) 3. Work with reduced polynomials. Because -4 is a zero, (x+4) and the first reduced 3 2 polynomial (3x  11x  12 x  4) are both factors of P. Thus P( x ) ! ( x  4)( 3x 3  11x 2  12 x  4) All remaining zeros of P must be zeros of (3 x 3  11x 2  12 x  4) .The Rational Zero Theorem indicates that the only possible negative rational zeros of (3x 3  11x 2  12 x  4) are p : 1,2,4, 1  2 , 4
q 3 3 3

Synthetic division is again used to test possible zeros. Verify that the zeros of 4 3 2 P ( x) ! 3 x  23 x  56 x  52 x  16 are -4, -2, -2/3, and -1. B. Find the zeros of . P ( x) ! x 3  19 x  30