HS1224 Health Science II Anatomy & Physiology

Biochemistry Elements & atoms Molecules & compounds Chemical bonds & chemical reactions Electrolyte, acid, bases & pH Inorganic & organic compounds Krebs cycle

Objectives
Define matter, element & atom Describe structure of atom Distinguish between atomic number & mass number of element Describe isotopes & radioisotopes Distinguish between ionic bonds, covalent bonds & hydrogen bonds Describe the different types of chemical reactions Differentiate between acids and bases & discuss how they relate to pH Describe the major groups of organic compounds that are important to human body Describe Krebs cycle

Matter and Energy

Matter anything that occupies space and has mass (weight) Energy the ability to do work

Composition of Matter
Elements fundamental units of matter
96% of the body is made from four elements
Carbon (C) Oxygen (O) Hydrogen (H) Nitrogen (N)

Atoms building blocks of elements

Atomic Structure
Nucleus
Protons (p+) Neutrons (n0)

Outside of nucleus
Electrons (e-)

Atomic Structure of Smallest Atoms

Identifying Elements
Atomic number equal to the number of protons that the atom contains Atomic mass number sum of the protons and neutrons

Isotopes
Isotopes
Have the same number of protons Vary in number of neutrons

Radioactivity
Radioisotope
Heavy isotope Tends to be unstable Decomposes to more stable isotope

Radioactivity process of spontaneous atomic decay

Molecules and Compounds

Molecule two or more like atoms combined chemically Compound two or more different atoms combined chemically

Electrons and Bonding

Electrons occupy energy levels called electron shells Electrons closest to the nucleus are most strongly attracted Each shell has distinct properties
The number of electrons has an upper limit Shells closest to the nucleus fill first

Electrons and Bonding

Bonding involves interactions between electrons in the outer shell (valence shell) Full valence shells do not form bonds

Inert Elements
Atoms are stable (inert) when the outermost shell is complete

Reactive Elements
Valence shells are not full and are unstable Tend to gain, lose, or share electrons
Allow for bond formation, which produces stable valence

Chemical Bonds
Ionic bonds
Form when electrons are completely transferred from one atom to another

Ions
Charged particles
Anions are negative Cations are positive Either donate or accept electrons

Ionic Bonds
+

Na

Cl

Na

Cl

Sodium atom (Na) (11p+; 12n0; 11e )

Chlorine atom (Cl) (17p+; 18n0; 17e )

Sodium ion (Na+)

Chloride ion (Cl )

Sodium chloride (NaCl)

Chemical Bonds
Covalent bonds
Atoms become stable through shared electrons Single covalent bonds share one pair of electrons Double covalent bonds share two pairs of electrons

Examples of Covalent Bonds

Examples of Covalent Bonds

Examples of Covalent Bonds

Polarity
Covalently bonded molecules
Some are non-polar
Electrically neutral as a molecule

Some are polar

Have a positive and negative side

Figure 2.8

Chemical Bonds
Hydrogen bonds
Weak chemical bonds Hydrogen is attracted to the negative portion of polar molecule Provides attraction between molecules

Hydrogen Bonds

Hydrogen bond animation

Chemical Reactions
Atoms are united by chemical bonds Atoms dissociate from other atoms when chemical bonds are broken

Patterns of Chemical Reactions

Synthesis reaction (A + B AB)
Atoms or molecules combine Energy is absorbed for bond formation

Synthesis and Decomposition Reactions

Decomposition reaction (AB A + B)
 Molecule is broken down  Chemical energy is released

Patterns of Chemical Reactions

Exchange reaction (AB + C AC + B)
Involves both synthesis and decomposition reactions Switch is made between molecule parts and different molecules are made

Biochemistry: Essentials for Life

Organic compounds
Contain carbon Most are covalently bonded Example: C6H12O6 (glucose)

Inorganic compounds
Lack carbon Tend to be simpler compounds Example: H2O (water)

Important Inorganic Compounds

Water
Most abundant inorganic compound Vital properties
High heat capacity Polarity/solvent properties Chemical reactivity Cushioning

Important Inorganic Compounds

Salts
Easily dissociate into ions in the presence of water Vital to many body functions Include electrolytes which conduct electrical currents

Dissociation of a Salt in Water

Important Inorganic Compounds

Acids
Release hydrogen ions (H+) Are proton donors

Bases
Release hydroxyl ions (OH ) Are proton acceptors

Neutralization reaction
Acids and bases react to form water and a salt

pH
Measures relative concentration of hydrogen ions
pH 7 = neutral pH below 7 = acidic pH above 7 = basic Buffers chemicals that can regulate pH change

Important Organic Compounds

Carbohydrates
Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen Include sugars and starches Classified according to size
Monosaccharides simple sugars Disaccharides two simple sugars joined by dehydration synthesis Polysaccharides long-branching chains of linked simple sugars

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates

Important Organic Compounds

Lipids
Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
Carbon and hydrogen outnumber oxygen

Insoluble in water

Lipids
Common lipids in the human body
Neutral fats (triglycerides)
Found in fat deposits Composed of fatty acids and glycerol Source of stored energy

Lipids
Common lipids in the human body (continued) Phospholipids Form cell membranes Steroids Include cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D &some hormones

Lipids
Cholesterol
The basis for all steroids made in the body

Important Organic Compounds

Proteins
Made of amino acids
Contain carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur

Proteins
Account for over half of the body s organic matter
Provide for construction materials for body tissues Play a vital role in cell function

Act as enzymes, hormones, and antibodies

Proteins
Fibrous proteins
Also known as structural proteins Appear in body structures Examples include collagen and keratin Stable

Proteins
Globular proteins
Also known as functional proteins Function as antibodies or enzymes Can be denatured

Enzymes
Act as biological catalysts Increase the rate of chemical reactions

Enzymes

Important Organic Compounds

Nucleic Acids
Provide blueprint of life Nucleotide bases
A = Adenine G = Guanine C = Cytosine T = Thymine U = Uracil

Make DNA and RNA

Nucleic Acids
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Organized by complimentary bases to form double helix Replicates before cell division Provides instructions for every protein in the body

Important Organic Compounds

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) Chemical energy used by all cells Energy is released by breaking high energy phosphate bond ATP is replenished by oxidation of food fuels

Membrane protein P P

Solute

Solute transported

(a) Transport work

ATP

ADP + P Relaxed muscle cell (b) Mechanical work P X P + Y Reactants (c) Chemical work Product made X Y Contracted muscle cell

Energy liberated during oxidation of food fuels used to regenerate ATP

Membrane protein P P

Solute transported Solute (a) Transport work

ATP

ADP + P

ATP

ADP + P Relaxed muscle cell Contracted muscle cell

(b)Mechanical work

ATP

ADP + P

P X P +Y X Y

Reactants Product made (c) Chemical work

Energy pathways
Cells requires energy in order to
     Grow in size Repair Reproduce Production of organic molecules Neurotransmitters, keratin, etc

2 major pathways to obtain energy

 Aerobic respiration require O2  Anerobic respiration does not require O2

energy in the form of ATP (Adenosine Tri-Phosphate)

Aerobic respiration
3 stages:

1.Glycolysis
Glucose -----> Pyruvate Occurs in the cytoplasm

2.Kreb s cycle
Pyruvate -----> CO2 and H2O Occurs in the mitochondria

3.Electron Transport Phosphorylation

Yields most of the ATP (36 ATP from 1 glucose) Also occurs in the mitochondria

In Cytosol

In Mitochondria

Aerobic respiration
80% of the body s energy is generated through the Krebs cycle 20% is produced through glycolysis Glycolysis can only use glucose  very little of which can be stored in the body at
any one time

Krebs cycle also uses fat  a far more abundant energy source

Glycolysis
Does not require O2 Consists of 10 enzymatic reactions that convert glucose (6 carbons) into pyruvate (3 carbon) Needs : 1 glucose molecule & 2 ATP units Produce : 4 ATP units, 2 NADH & 2 pyruvate molecules

Krebs cycle
Named after Hans Adolf Kreb Also called the Citric Acid Cycle Takes place in the mitochondria Requires oxygen for the process to proceed Functions:

1) Load electrons and H+ onto the NAD+ and FAD molecules forming NADH and FADH2 (contain energy) 2) Produce 2 ATP units 3) Rearrange intermediates into oxaloacetate to recycle the carbon chains

Krebs cycle
Involves PREPRATORY STEPS 3 carbon Pyruvate is converted into 2 carbon Acetyl CoA NADH is formed from NAD+ and electrons from the Pyruvate molecule CO2 is produced by the addition of Coenzyme A Acetyl CoA (2 carbon) enters the cycle

Krebs cycle

Krebs cycle (Step 1)

2 carbon compound is attached to a 4 carbon Oxaloacetate Forms a 6 carbon Citrate

Krebs cycle (Step 2)

Citrate has a water molecule removed and another water molecule added Forming 6 carbon Isocitrate

Krebs cycle (Step 3)

Electrons and hydrogens are given up to form an NADH molecule and one CO2 molecule Forms a 5 carbon a Ketoglutarate

Krebs cycle (Step 5)

Electrons and hydrogens are removed from a ketoglutarate forming an NADH and one CO2 Coenzyme A is added to the intermediate forming a 4 carbon Succinyl CoA

Krebs cycle (Step 6)

Coenzyme A & a phosphate are stripped from Succinyl CoA Forms a molecule of ATP & recycles the Coenzyme A Results in formation of a 4 carbon Succinate molecule

Krebs cycle (Step 7)

FAD removes hydrogens and electrons to form FADH2 Results in formation of a 4 carbon Fumarate molecule

Krebs cycle (Step 8)

Water is added to Fumarate to form Malate

Krebs cycle (Step 9)

Electrons & hydrogens are removed to form the 4 carbon Oxaloacetae & one NADH molecule Oxaloacetate is now available to pick up another pyruvate