Lect 05

1
EEE 498/598 EEE 498/598

Overview of Electrical Engineering Overview of Electrical Engineering
Lecture 5: Lecture 5:
Electrostatics: Dielectric Breakdown, Electrostatics: Dielectric Breakdown,
Electrostatic Boundary Conditions, Electrostatic Boundary Conditions,
Electrostatic Potential Energy; Electrostatic Potential Energy;
Conduction Current and Ohms Law Conduction Current and Ohms Law
Lecture 5
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Lecture 5 Objectives Lecture 5 Objectives
To continue our study of electrostatics To continue our study of electrostatics
with dielectric breakdown, electrostatic with dielectric breakdown, electrostatic
boundary conditions and electrostatic boundary conditions and electrostatic
potential energy. potential energy.
To study steady conduction current and To study steady conduction current and
Ohms law. Ohms law.
Lecture 5
3
Dielectric Breakdown Dielectric Breakdown
If a dielectric material is placed in a very If a dielectric material is placed in a very
strong electric field, electrons can be torn strong electric field, electrons can be torn
from their corresponding nuclei causing from their corresponding nuclei causing
large currents to flow and damaging the large currents to flow and damaging the
material. This phenomenon is called material. This phenomenon is called
dielectric breakdown dielectric breakdown..
Lecture 5
4
Dielectric Breakdown (Contd) Dielectric Breakdown (Contd)
The value of the electric field at which The value of the electric field at which
dielectric breakdown dielectric breakdown occurs is called the occurs is called the
dielectric strength dielectric strength of the material. of the material.
The The dielectric strength dielectric strength of a material is of a material is
denoted by the symbol denoted by the symbol EE
BR BR
..
Lecture 5
5
The dielectric strength of a material may The dielectric strength of a material may
vary by several orders of magnitude vary by several orders of magnitude
depending on various factors including the depending on various factors including the
exact composition of the material. exact composition of the material.
Usually dielectric breakdown does not Usually dielectric breakdown does not
permanently damage gaseous or liquid permanently damage gaseous or liquid
dielectrics, but does ruin solid dielectrics. dielectrics, but does ruin solid dielectrics.
Lecture 5
6
Capacitors typically carry a maximum Capacitors typically carry a maximum
voltage rating. Keeping the terminal voltage rating. Keeping the terminal
voltage below this value insures that the voltage below this value insures that the
field within the capacitor never exceeds field within the capacitor never exceeds
EE
BR BR
for the dielectric. for the dielectric.
Usually a safety factor of 10 or so is used in Usually a safety factor of 10 or so is used in
calculating the rating. calculating the rating.
Lecture 5
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Fundamental Laws of Fundamental Laws of
Electrostatics in Integral Form Electrostatics in Integral Form

=
=
V
ev
S
C
dv q s d D
l d E 0
E D I =
Conservative field
Gausss law
Constitutive relation
Lecture 5
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Fundamental Laws of Electrostatics Fundamental Laws of Electrostatics
in Differential Form in Differential Form
ev
q D
E
= \
= - \ 0
E D I =
Conservative field
Gausss law
Constitutive relation
Lecture 5
9
Fundamental Laws of Fundamental Laws of
Electrostatics Electrostatics
The integral forms of the fundamental laws are The integral forms of the fundamental laws are
more general because they apply over regions of more general because they apply over regions of
space. The differential forms are only valid at a space. The differential forms are only valid at a
point. point.
From the integral forms of the fundamental laws From the integral forms of the fundamental laws
both the differential equations governing the both the differential equations governing the
field within a medium and the boundary field within a medium and the boundary
conditions at the interface between two media conditions at the interface between two media
can be derived. can be derived.
Lecture 5
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Boundary Conditions Boundary Conditions
Within a homogeneous medium, there are Within a homogeneous medium, there are
no abrupt changes in no abrupt changes in EE or or D D. However, at . However, at
the interface between two different media the interface between two different media
(having two different values of (having two different values of I I, it is , it is
obvious that one or both of these must obvious that one or both of these must
change abruptly. change abruptly.
Lecture 5
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Boundary Conditions (Contd) Boundary Conditions (Contd)
To derive the boundary conditions on the To derive the boundary conditions on the
normal and tangential field conditions, we normal and tangential field conditions, we
shall apply the integral form of the two shall apply the integral form of the two
fundamental laws to an infinitesimally fundamental laws to an infinitesimally
small region that lies partially in one small region that lies partially in one
medium and partially in the other. medium and partially in the other.
Lecture 5
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Consider two semi Consider two semi--infinite media separated by a infinite media separated by a
boundary. A surface charge may exist at the boundary. A surface charge may exist at the
interface. interface.
Medium 1
Medium 2
x
x
x x
V
s
Lecture 5
13
Locally, the boundary will look planar Locally, the boundary will look planar
1
I
2
I
2 2
, D E
1 1
, D E
x x x x x x
V
s
Lecture 5
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Boundary Condition on Normal Boundary Condition on Normal
Component of D Component of D
Consider an infinitesimal cylinder (pillbox) with
cross-sectional area (s and height (h lying half in
medium 1 and half in medium 2:
1
I
2
I
2 2
, D E
1 1
, D E
(s
(h/2
(h/2
x x x x x x
V
s
n
a
Lecture 5
15
Component of D Component of D (Contd) (Contd)
Applying Gausss law to the pillbox, we have Applying Gausss law to the pillbox, we have
s q RHS
s D s D
s d D s d D s d D LHS
dv q s d D
es
n n
side bottom top
V
ev
S
( =
( ( =
+ + =
=

2 1
0
Lecture 5
16
Component of D (Contd) Component of D (Contd)
The boundary condition is The boundary condition is
If there is no surface charge If there is no surface charge
s n n
D D V =
2 1
n n
D D
2 1
=
For non-conducting
materials, V
s
= 0 unless
an impressed source is
present.
Lecture 5
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Boundary Condition on Boundary Condition on
Tangential Component of E Tangential Component of E
Consider an infinitesimal path abcd with width (w
and height (h lying half in medium 1 and half in
medium 2:
1
I
2
I
n
a
2 2
, D E
1 1
, D E
(h/2
(h/2
(w
a
b
c
d
Lecture 5
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Boundary Condition on Tangential Boundary Condition on Tangential
Component of Component of E E (Contd) (Contd)
n
a
a
b
c
d
s
a
t
a
path along boundary

the to al r tangenti unit vecto

contour by the defined direction in the
path lar to perpendicu r unit vecto
= - =
=
n s t
s
a a a
abcd a
Lecture 5
19
Component of Component of E E (Contd) (Contd)
Applying conservative law to the path, we have Applying conservative law to the path, we have
w E E
w E
h
E
h
E w E
h
E
h
E
l d E l d E l d E l d E LHS
l d E
t t
t n n t n n
a
d
d
c
c
b
b
a
C
( =
( +
(
+
(
+ (
(
(
=
+ + + =
=

2 1
1 2 1 2 2 1
2 2 2 2
0
Lecture 5
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The boundary condition is The boundary condition is
t t
E E
2 1
=
Component of E (Contd) Component of E (Contd)
Lecture 5
21
Electrostatic Boundary Electrostatic Boundary
Conditions Conditions - - Summary Summary
At any point on the boundary, At any point on the boundary,
the components of the components of EE
11
and and EE
22
tangential to tangential to
the boundary are equal the boundary are equal
the components of the components of D D
11
and and D D
22
normal to the normal to the
boundary are discontinuous by an amount boundary are discontinuous by an amount
equal to any surface charge existing at that equal to any surface charge existing at that
point point
Lecture 5
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Conditions Conditions - - Special Cases Special Cases
Special Case 1: the interface between two Special Case 1: the interface between two
perfect (non perfect (non--conducting) dielectrics: conducting) dielectrics:
Physical principle: Physical principle: there can be no free there can be no free
surface charge associated with the surface of a surface charge associated with the surface of a
perfect dielectric. perfect dielectric.
In practice: In practice: unless an impressed surface unless an impressed surface
charge is explicitly stated, assume it is zero. charge is explicitly stated, assume it is zero.
Lecture 5
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Conditions Conditions - - Special Cases Special Cases
Special Case 2: the interface between a Special Case 2: the interface between a
conductor and a perfect dielectric: conductor and a perfect dielectric:
Physical principle: Physical principle: there can be no there can be no
electrostatic field inside of a conductor. electrostatic field inside of a conductor.
In practice: In practice: a surface charge always exists a surface charge always exists
at the boundary. at the boundary.
0
1
1
=
=
t
s n
E
D V
Lecture 5
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Potential Energy Potential Energy
When one lifts a bowling ball and places it on a When one lifts a bowling ball and places it on a
table, the work done is stored in the form of table, the work done is stored in the form of
potential energy. Allowing the ball to drop back to potential energy. Allowing the ball to drop back to
the floor releases that energy. the floor releases that energy.
Bringing two charges together from infinite Bringing two charges together from infinite
separation against their electrostatic repulsion also separation against their electrostatic repulsion also
requires work. Electrostatic energy is stored in a requires work. Electrostatic energy is stored in a
configuration of charges, and it is released when the configuration of charges, and it is released when the
charges are allowed to recede away from each other. charges are allowed to recede away from each other.
Lecture 5
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Electrostatic Energy in a Discrete Electrostatic Energy in a Discrete
Charge Distribution Charge Distribution
Q
1
Consider a point Consider a point
charge charge Q Q
11
in an in an
otherwise empty otherwise empty
universe. universe.
The system stores no The system stores no
potential energy since potential energy since
no work has been no work has been
done in creating it. done in creating it.
Lecture 5
26
Charge Distribution (Contd) Charge Distribution (Contd)
Now bring in from Now bring in from
infinity another point infinity another point
charge charge Q Q
22
..
The energy required to The energy required to
bring bring Q Q
22
into the into the
system is system is
Q
1
Q
2
R
12
12 2 2
V Q W =
V
12
is the electrostatic potential due to Q
1
at the location of Q
2
.
Lecture 5
27
Now bring in from Now bring in from
infinity another infinity another
point charge point charge Q Q
33
..
The energy required The energy required
to bring to bring Q Q
33
into the into the
system is system is

23 13 3 3
V V Q W + =
Q
1
Q
2
R
12
Q
3 R
13
R
23
Lecture 5
28
The total energy required to assemble the The total energy required to assemble the
system of three charges is system of three charges is

23 13 3 12 2
3 2
V V Q V Q
W W W
e
+ + =
+ =
Lecture 5
29
Now bring in from infinity a fourth point Now bring in from infinity a fourth point
charge charge Q Q
44
..
The energy required to bring The energy required to bring Q Q
44
into the into the
system is system is
system of four charges is system of four charges is

34 24 14 4 23 13 3 12 2
4 3 2
V V V Q V V Q V Q
W W W W
e
+ + + + + =
+ + =
Lecture 5
30
Bring in from infinity an Bring in from infinity an iith point charge th point charge Q Q
ii
into a system of into a system of ii- -11 point charges. point charges.
The energy required to bring The energy required to bring Q Q
ii
into the into the
system is system is
system of system of N N charges is charges is
=
=
1
1
i
j
ji i i
V Q W

=
= = =
=
= = =
N
i
i
j
ji i
N
i
N
i
i
j
ji i i e
V Q V Q W W
2
1
1 2 2
1
1
Lecture 5
31
Note that Note that
ij j
ij
i
j
ji
j
i ji i
V Q
R
Q
Q
R
Q
Q V Q
=
= =
0 0
4 4 xI xI
Physically, the above means that the partial
energy associated with two point charges is equal no
matter in what order the charges are assembled.
Lecture 5
32

?
A ...
2
1
2
1
34 4 24 4 14 4
43 3 42 2 41 1
23 3 13 3 32 2 31 1
12 2 21 1
2
1
1 2
1
1
+ + + +
+ + +
+ + + +
+ =
+ = =

=
= =
=
V Q V Q V Q
V Q V Q V Q
V Q V Q V Q V Q
V Q V Q
V Q V Q V Q W
N
i
i
j
ji i ij j
N
i
i
j
ji i e
Lecture 5
33
?

A

=
= + + + =
+ + + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + =
N
i
i i
e
V Q V Q V Q V Q
V V V Q
V V V Q
V V V Q
V V V Q W
1
3 3 2 2 1 1
34 24 14 4
43 23 13 3
42 32 12 2
41 31 21 1
2
1
...
2
1
... ...
...
...
...
2
1
Lecture 5
34
{
=
=
N
i j
j
ji i
V V
1
where
Physically, V
i
is the potential at the location of the ith
point charge due to the other (N-1) charges.
Lecture 5
35
Electrostatic Energy in a Electrostatic Energy in a
Continuous Charge Distribution Continuous Charge Distribution
dv r V r q V Q
dv q Q
V
ev
n
i
i i
ev
p
p
=1
dv r V r q W
V
ev e

=
2
1
Lecture 5
36
Electrostatic Energy in a Continuous Electrostatic Energy in a Continuous
D q
ev
\ =
dv D V W
V
e

\ =
2
1
V D D V D V \ \ = \
: identity vector
dv V D dv D V W
V V
e

\ \ =
2
1
2
1
Lecture 5
37
Divergence theorem and
dv E D s d D V W
V S
e

+ =
2
1
2
1
V E \ =
Lecture 5
38
Let the volume Let the volume VV be all of space. Then the be all of space. Then the
closed surface closed surface SS is sphere of radius infinity. is sphere of radius infinity.
All sources of finite extent look like point All sources of finite extent look like point
charges. Hence, charges. Hence,
0 lim
1 1
2
2
p

p
s d D V
R ds
R
D
R
V
S
R
Lecture 5
39
dv E D W
V
e

=
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
E E D w dv w W
e
V
e e
I = = =
Electrostatic energy
density in J/m
3
.
Lecture 5
40
dv E P dv E dv E D W
V V V
e

+ = =
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
0
I
energy required to
set the field up in
free space
energy required to
polarize the dielectric
P E D + =
0
I
Lecture 5
41
Electrostatic Energy in a Capacitor Electrostatic Energy in a Capacitor

12 1 2
2 2 1 1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2 1
QV Q V V
ds r q V ds r q V
dv r V r q W
c c
S
es
S
es
V
ev e
= =
+ =
=

V
2
V
l
+
-
+Q
-Q
V
12
Lecture 5
42
Electrostatic Energy in a Capacitor Electrostatic Energy in a Capacitor
2
2
1
2
1
CV QV W
e
= =
Letting Letting V = V V = V
12 12
= V = V
22
VV
11
Lecture 5
43
Electrostatic Forces: The Electrostatic Forces: The
Principle of Virtual Work Principle of Virtual Work
Electrostatic forces acting on bodies can be Electrostatic forces acting on bodies can be
computed using the computed using the principle of virtual principle of virtual
work work..
The force on any conductor or dielectric The force on any conductor or dielectric
body within a system can be obtained by body within a system can be obtained by
assuming a differential displacement of the assuming a differential displacement of the
body and computing the resulting change in body and computing the resulting change in
the electrostatic energy of the system. the electrostatic energy of the system.
Lecture 5
44
Electrostatic Forces: The Principle of Electrostatic Forces: The Principle of
Virtual Work (Contd) Virtual Work (Contd)
The electrostatic force can be evaluated as The electrostatic force can be evaluated as
the gradient of the electrostatic energy of the gradient of the electrostatic energy of
the system, provided that the energy is the system, provided that the energy is
expressed in terms of the coordinate expressed in terms of the coordinate
location of the body being displaced. location of the body being displaced.
Lecture 5
45
When using the principle of virtual work, When using the principle of virtual work,
we can assume either that the conductors we can assume either that the conductors
maintain a constant charge or that they maintain a constant charge or that they
maintain a constant voltage (i.e, they are maintain a constant voltage (i.e, they are
connected to a battery). connected to a battery).
Lecture 5
46
For a system of bodies with fixed charges, For a system of bodies with fixed charges,
the total electrostatic force acting on the the total electrostatic force acting on the
body is given by body is given by
e Q
W F \ =
Lecture 5
47
For a system of bodies with fixed For a system of bodies with fixed
potentials, the total electrostatic force potentials, the total electrostatic force
acting on the body is given by acting on the body is given by
e V
W F \ =
Lecture 5
48
Force on a Capacitor Plate Force on a Capacitor Plate
Compute the force on one plate of a charged Compute the force on one plate of a charged
parallel plate capacitor. parallel plate capacitor. Neglect fringing Neglect fringing of the of the
field. field.
y
+Q
-Q
The force on the
upper plate can be
found assuming a
system of fixed
charge.
Lecture 5
49
(Contd) (Contd)
The capacitance can be written as a function of the The capacitance can be written as a function of the
location of the upper plate: location of the upper plate:
The electrostatic energy stored in the capacitor may The electrostatic energy stored in the capacitor may
be evaluated as a function of the charge on the be evaluated as a function of the charge on the
upper plate and its location: upper plate and its location:

y
A
y C
d
A
C
0 0
I I
= =

y
A
Q
y C
Q
y W
e
0
2 2
2 2 I
= =
Lecture 5
50
(Contd) (Contd)
The force on the upper plate is given by The force on the upper plate is given by
Using Using Q = CV Q = CV,,

A
Q
a
y
y W
a W F
y
e
y e Q
0
2
2

I
=
= \ =
d
CV
a F
y Q
2
2
=
Lecture 5
51
(Contd) (Contd)
Compute the force on one plate of a charged Compute the force on one plate of a charged
parallel plate capacitor. parallel plate capacitor. Neglect fringing Neglect fringing of the of the
field. field.
y
V = V
12
V = 0
The force on the
upper plate can be
found assuming a
system of fixed
potential.
Lecture 5
52
(Contd) (Contd)
The capacitance can be written as a function of the The capacitance can be written as a function of the
location of the upper plate: location of the upper plate:
The electrostatic energy stored in the capacitor may The electrostatic energy stored in the capacitor may
be written as a function of the voltage across the be written as a function of the voltage across the
plates and the location of the upper plate: plates and the location of the upper plate:

y
A
y C
d
A
C
0 0
I I
= =

y
AV
CV y W
e
2 2
1
2
0
2
I
= =
Lecture 5
53
(Contd) (Contd)
The force on the upper plate is given by The force on the upper plate is given by
Manipulating, we obtain Manipulating, we obtain

2
2
0
2

y
AV
a
y
y W
a W F
y
e
y e V
I
=
= \ =
d
CV
a F
y Q
2
2
=
Lecture 5
54
Steady Electric Current Steady Electric Current
Electrostatics is the study of charges at Electrostatics is the study of charges at
rest. rest.
Now, we shall allow the charges to move, Now, we shall allow the charges to move,
but with a constant velocity (no time but with a constant velocity (no time
variation). variation).
steady electric current steady electric current = = direct current direct current
(DC) (DC)
Lecture 5
55
Conductors and Conductivity Conductors and Conductivity
A A conductor conductor is a material in which electrons is a material in which electrons
are free to migrate over macroscopic are free to migrate over macroscopic
distances within the material. distances within the material.
Metals are good conductors because they Metals are good conductors because they
have many free electrons per unit volume. have many free electrons per unit volume.
Other materials with a smaller number of free Other materials with a smaller number of free
electrons per unit volume are also electrons per unit volume are also
conductors. conductors.
Conductivity Conductivity is a measure of the ability of is a measure of the ability of
the material to conduct electricity. the material to conduct electricity.
Lecture 5
56
Semiconductor Semiconductor
A A semiconductor semiconductor is a material in which is a material in which
electrons in the outermost shell are able to electrons in the outermost shell are able to
migrate over macroscopic distances when a migrate over macroscopic distances when a
modest energy barrier is overcome. modest energy barrier is overcome.
Semiconductors Semiconductors support the flow of both support the flow of both
negative charges (electrons) and positive negative charges (electrons) and positive
charges (holes). charges (holes).
Lecture 5
57
Conduction Current Conduction Current
When subjected to a field, an electron in a When subjected to a field, an electron in a
conductor migrates through the material conductor migrates through the material
constantly colliding with the lattice and losing constantly colliding with the lattice and losing
momentum. momentum.
The net effect is that the electron moves The net effect is that the electron moves
(drifts) with an average drift velocity that is (drifts) with an average drift velocity that is
proportional to the electric field. proportional to the electric field.
E v
e d
Q =
electron
mobility
Lecture 5
58
Conduction Current (Contd) Conduction Current (Contd)
Consider a conducting wire in which charges Consider a conducting wire in which charges
subject to an electric field are moving with subject to an electric field are moving with
drift velocity drift velocity vv
d d
..
E
v
d
electron
cross-section
(s
n
a
current
Lecture 5
59
If there are If there are nn
cc
free electrons per cubic meter of free electrons per cubic meter of
material, then the charge density within the wire material, then the charge density within the wire
is is
Consider an infinitesimal volume associated with Consider an infinitesimal volume associated with
((ss::
c ev
en q =
(s
(l
l s v ( ( = (
Lecture 5
60
The total charge contained within The total charge contained within ((vv is is
This charge packet moves through the This charge packet moves through the
surface surface ((ss with speed with speed
The amount of time it takes for the charge The amount of time it takes for the charge
packet to move through packet to move through ((ss is is
l s en v q Q
c ev
( ( = ( = (
n e d n
a E v a

= Q
d n
v a
l
t
(
= (
Lecture 5
61
Current Current is the rate at which charges passes is the rate at which charges passes
through a specified surface area (such as the through a specified surface area (such as the
cross cross--section of a wire). section of a wire).
The incremental current through The incremental current through ((ss is given by is given by

n e c
a E s en
t
Q
I

( =
(
(
= ( Q
Lecture 5
62
Current Density Current Density
The component of the current density in the The component of the current density in the
direction normal to direction normal to ((ss is is
In general, the current density is given by In general, the current density is given by

n e c n
a E en
s
I
a J

=
(
(
= Q
E en J
e c
Q =
Lecture 5
63
Current Density (Contd) Current Density (Contd)
The constant of proportionality between the The constant of proportionality between the
electric field and the conduction current electric field and the conduction current
density is called the density is called the conductivity conductivity of the of the
material: material:
Ohms law at a point Ohms law at a point::
e c
en Q W =
E J W =
Lecture 5
64
The The conductivity conductivity of the medium is the of the medium is the
macroscopic quantity which allows us to treat macroscopic quantity which allows us to treat
conduction current without worrying about the conduction current without worrying about the
microscopic behavior of conductors. microscopic behavior of conductors.
In In semiconductors semiconductors, we have both holes and , we have both holes and
electrons electrons

p p e e
N N e Q Q W + =
hole
mobility
hole density
Lecture 5
65
The total current flowing through a cross The total current flowing through a cross--
sectional area sectional area SS may be found as may be found as
If the current density is uniform throughout If the current density is uniform throughout
the cross the cross--section, we have section, we have
=
S
s d J I
A a J I
n
=
cross-sectional
area
Lecture 5
66
Current Flow Current Flow
Consider a wire of non Consider a wire of non--uniform cross uniform cross--
section: section:
E
A
1
A
2
Lecture 5
67
Current Flow (Contd) Current Flow (Contd)
To maintain a constant electric field and a To maintain a constant electric field and a
steady current flow, both steady current flow, both EE and and JJ must be must be
parallel to the conductor boundaries. parallel to the conductor boundaries.
The total current passing through the The total current passing through the
cross cross--section section A A
11
must be the same as must be the same as
through the cross through the cross--section section A A
22
. So the . So the
current density must be greater in current density must be greater in A A
22
..
Lecture 5
68
Ohms Law and Resistors Ohms Law and Resistors
Consider a conductor of uniform cross Consider a conductor of uniform cross--section: section:
Let the wires and the two
exposed faces of the
resistor be perfect
conductor.
l
A
A
W
E
V
2 F
1
+ V -
I In a perfect conductor:
J is finite
W is infinite
E must be zero.
Lecture 5
69
(Contd) (Contd)
To derive Ohms law for resistors from Ohms law To derive Ohms law for resistors from Ohms law
at a point, we need to relate the circuit quantities ( at a point, we need to relate the circuit quantities (VV
and and I I) to the field quantities ( ) to the field quantities (EE and and JJ))
The electric field within the material is given by The electric field within the material is given by
The current density in the wire is The current density in the wire is
l
V
l
V V
l
V
E =
= =
1 2 12
A
I
J =
Lecture 5
70
(Contd) (Contd)
Plugging into Plugging into J = J = W WEE, we have , we have
Define the resistance of the device as Define the resistance of the device as
Thus, Thus,
I
A
l
V
W
=
A
l
R
W
=
RI V =
Ohms law for
resistors

Lect 05

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Lect 05

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EEE 498/598 EEE 498/598

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