Respiration:

exchange of gases (O2 & CO2) essential to life

Types:
1. 2.

External Internal

Functions:

Acquire O2 from the environment into body cells for metabolism Expel CO2 as a metabolic product into the environment For higher vertebrates, this system aids in language

Ventilation

Breathing Inspiration + expiration

Inspiration

Breathing in in terms of air Taking-in of O2-rich water for aquatic vertebrates

Expiration

Breathing out Expulsion of O2-rich water from the gills

This measurement served as the baseline for all subsequent measurements during the experiment. The tracing resembles a simple wave where the amplitude above the point of equilibrium (inhalation) is greater than the amplitude below (exhalation).

Relative to the normal respiratory pattern, the pattern of breathing during hyperventilation and breath holding was observed to have a larger amplitude with longer intervals after hyperventilation and shorter intervals after breath-holding. Also, the respiratory rate after hyperventilation is less than the normal respiratory rate while the respiratory rate after breath-holding was faster than the baseline.

The observed breathing pattern was shallower compared to the normal respiratory and with a slightly faster interval in between breaths when the calculation was solved.

While reading aloud, it was observed that the waves in the kymograph were larger in amplitude and had longer intervals in between the waves or breaths. Also, irregularities were observed. While reading silently, the breathing pattern was similar to the normal respiratory pattern.

The breathing response was a very few and shallow breaths followed by one deep breath after consuming the water.

After 100 jumping jacks, the observed breathing pattern was deep breaths at faster intervals.

Sensory neurons that are responsive to chemicals Function: Monitor and maintain levels of CO2, O2 and H+ Types:
Central x Location: medulla oblongata in CNS x Respond to changes in [H+] or PCO2 or both in cerebrospinal fluid Peripheral x Location: aortic (clusters at wall of aortic arch) or carotid (oval nodules in walls of L and R common carotid arteries) bodies x Respond to changes in CO2, O2 and H+ in the blood

A body part innervated by motor neurons

x. Respiratory muscles

Muscles of inhalation
x Sternocleidomastoid x Scalenes x External intercostals

Muscles of exhalation
x x x x x Internal intercostals External oblique Internal oblique Transversus abdominis Rectus abdominis

EVENTS After hyperventilation

CHEMICAL STIMULI Decrease CO2

RECEPTORS Peripheral chemoreceptors: aortic and carotid bodies Peripheral chemoreceptors: aortic and carotid bodies Cortex

CENTRAL CONTROLLER Pons inhibit

EFFECTS Decrease RR

After breath holding

Increase CO2

Pons stimulate

Increase RR

Mental addition Reading silently Reading aloud / talk Drinking H2O Exercise

More cortex / pons inhibit Same with normal respiratory pattern Cortex More cortex / pons inhibit More cortex / pons inhibit Pons stimulate

Decrease RR

Increase CO2

Irregular RR Irregular RR to decrease RR Increase RR

Closing of epiglottis Peripheral chemoreceptors: aortic and carotid bodies Peripheral chemoreceptors: aortic and carotid bodies

Obstruction of Respiratory Passageway

Increase CO2

Pons stimulate

Increase RR

TIDAL VOLUME (TV): Volume inspired or expired with each normal breath. The average tidal volume is 500 mL, but is less for shallow breathing. INSPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME (IRV): Maximum volume that can be inspired over the inspiration of a tidal volume/normal breath. Used during exercise/exertion. This averages 2 to 3 liters. EXPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME (ERV): Maximal volume that can be expired after the expiration of a tidal volume/normal breath. The average is 1 to 1.5 liters. RESIDUAL VOLUME (RV): Volume that remains in the lungs after a maximal expiration. CANNOT be measured by spirometry.

INSPIRATORY CAPACITY ( IC): Volume of maximal inspiration: IRV + TV FUNCTIONAL RESIDUAL CAPACITY (FRC): Volume of gas remaining in lung after normal expiration, cannot be measured by spirometry because it includes residual volume: ERV + RV VITAL CAPACITY (VC): Volume of maximal inspiration and expiration: IRV + TV + ERV = IC + ERV TOTAL LUNG CAPACITY (TLC): The volume of the lung after maximal inspiration. The sum of all four lung volumes, cannot be measured by spirometry because it includes residual volume: IRV+ TV + ERV + RV = IC + FRC

Measurement Total Lung Capacity (TLC) Vital Capacity (VC) Tidal Volume (TV) Residual Volume (RV) Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) Inspiratory Capacity (IC)

Value 6.0 L 4.6 L 500 mL 1.2 L 1.2 L 3.6 L 2.4 L 4.1 L

Normal breathing Inhalations and exhalations at uniform intervals Inhale normally and exhale maximally Deeper troughs x May lead to oxygen debt Height of crest is the same as that of normal breathing Inhale and exhale maximally Higher crests and deeper troughs x Increase amount of air that can be expelled

The ratio of the actual lung volumes do correspond to the ratio of the acquired tracings. This is because tracings are representatives of the actual graphs or volume-time curves of the actual lung volumes. By using an appropriate scale of measurement and conversion, the actual lung volumes and capacities can be computed by using the tracings.

Spirometry Technique where the volume movement of air into and out of the lungs are recorded Spirometer Instrument used to measure pulmonary ventilation Spirogram The record of pulmonary ventilation

records the amount of air and the rate of air that is breathed in and out over a specified time can measure all lung volumes except residual volume (RV)

to determine how well the lungs receive, hold, and utilize air to monitor a lung disease to monitor the effectiveness of treatment to determine whether the lung disease is restrictive or obstructive

restrictive respiratory disease: inability of the lungs to expand fully difficulty in breathing air in obstructive respiratory disease: inability of the lungs to fully contract difficulty in getting the air out

A restrictive respiratory disease is any respiratory condition resulting in the inability of the lungs to expand fully. People with restrictive respiratory diseases have difficulty in breathing air in. Obstructive respiratory diseases are any respiratory condition resulting in the inability of the lungs to fully contract or get the air all out.

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM AND CHEST BELLOWS Polio Obesity Myasthenia gravis Guillain Barr syndrome Flail chest (multiple broken ribs) Diaphragm paralysis Spinal cord disease Pickwickian syndrome Pleural effusion and pleural disease

LUNGS Pneumonia Sarcoidosis Lung fibrosis Acute respiratory failure associated with pulmonary edema Hyaline membrane disease Advanced lung cancer Congestive heart failure

Asthma Chronic bronchitis Lower Airway Obstruction Emphysema Cystic fibrosis Sarcoidosis Croup Laryngotracheobronchitis Upper Airway Obstruction Epiglottitis Various tumors and foreign bodies that may involve the upper airway