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6.1 Introduction
First Europe, and then the globe, will be linked by flight, and nations so knit together that they will grow to be next-door neighbors. This conquest of the air will prove, ultimately, to be mens greatest and most glorious triumph. What railways have done for nations, airway will do for the world Claude Grahame-White, British aviator, 1914
Questions about airplane performances What is the maximum speed? (Vmax) How fast can it climb to a given altitude? (R/C)max How far can it fly on a given tank of fuel? (range) How long can it stay in the air? (endurance) Take-off, landing, turning, etc.
Drag Polar
Aerodynamic force and moments are from the pressure distribution and the shear stress distribution Aerodynamicists provide performance engineers the pertinent data; drag polar for the complete airplane CD=CD,e+CL2/TeAR
Drag Polar
CD=CD,0+(r+1/TeAR )CL2 CD,i Drag due to lift CD=CD,0+CL2/TeAR CD,0; parasite drag coefficient at zero lift e; Oswald efficiency factor; span efficiency (non-elliptic lift distribution) plus the effect of the variation of parasite drag with lift
Drag=zero-lift drag + drag due to lift CD=CD,0+ CD,i CD,0; parasite drag coefficient at zero lift, at E=EL=0 Drag polar; graph CL vs CD
CD,0
CL CL
CD,0
CD
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CD=CD,0+(CL- CL min )2/TeAR drag Actually, zero-lift doesnt match with minimum drag EL=0 is slightly negative; negative pitch increases pressure (form) drag due to flow separation
CL
CD,min CD CD,0
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Flight Path
ET
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Thrust Required TR
TR
CL=W/ [VV2 S] CD= CD,0 + CL2 /TeAR Then get the CL/ CD
(L/D)max
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Lift-to-drag ratio
L/D is a measure of the aerodynamic efficiency Minimum thrust angle of attack at maximum L/D ratio (2-50 for subsonic flight) Different angle-ofattack, different thrust required
L/D (L/D)max
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Thrustrequired Curve
As V is high, q is also high (VV2 ) Then CL is not large small E For low velocity, q decreases so CL and consequently Eincrease also increase induced drag
TR E
increase
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TR Net TR
Zero-lift TR Lift induced TR
TR ! qg SCD , 0
W qg STeAR
V(L/D)max
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Chain rule
Minimum or maximum, this case minimum
W W 2 ! CL as 2 2 ! q S qg S g 2 W TR ! qg SC D , 0 qg STeAR C D,0
2 CL ! ! C D ,i TeAR
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Vfree
100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320
CL
PR
27889 27535 27866 28835 30414 32595 35376 38764 42773 47418 52719 58698 65377 72781 80936 89868 99606 110175 121605 133925 147162 161347 176509
29 Excel Spreadsheet
V free CL
300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 430 440 450 460 470 480 490 500 510 520 530 0.583 0.546 0.512 0.481 0.454 0.428 0.405 0.383 0.363 0.345 0.328 0.312 0.297 0.284 0.271 0.259 0.248 0.237 0.228 0.218 0.210 0.202 0.194 0.187
CD
0.035 0.033 0.032 0.030 0.029 0.028 0.027 0.026 0.026 0.025 0.025 0.024 0.024 0.024 0.023 0.023 0.023 0.022 0.022 0.022 0.022 0.022 0.022 0.022
L/D
16.68 16.48 16.24 15.94 15.61 15.25 14.87 14.48 14.07 13.66 13.25 12.85 12.44 12.05 11.66 11.28 10.91 10.56 10.21 9.88 9.56 9.25 8.95 8.67
TR
1188 1202 1220 1243 1269 1299 1332 1369 1408 1450 1495 1543 1593 1645 1700 1756 1816 1877 1940 2005 2073 2142 2213 2286
Constant power
Constant thrust
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CL3/2 /CD
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Note that for propeller PR~1/[CL3/2 /CD] For jet (constant thrust) TR ~1/[CL/CD] PR=TRV= DV (true for level flight T=D) PR= DV= qS( CD,0 + CL2 /TeAR)V PR=[zero-lift power required]+[Liftinduced power required]
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2 CL PR ! qg SCD , 0Vg qg SVg TeAR
1 2 W / V gVg S 1 1 2 3 3 ! V gVg SCD ,0 V gVg S 2 2 TeAR 1 W 2 / V gVg S 1 3 2 ! V gVg SCD ,0 2 TeAR 1 W 2 / V gVg2 S dPR 3 2 ! V gVg2 SC D, 0 dVg 2 TeAR
3 2 W 2 / V gVg4 S 2 required 3 4 ! V gVg2 S C D ,0 2 TeAR CD,0 =1/3 CD,i 1 2 CL 3 1 3 ! V gVg2 S C D, 0 CD ,i ! 0 ! V gVg2 S C D ,0 3 3 2 TeAR 2
Minimum power
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39 Power required for the CJ-1 at 22,000 ft Change air density 0.001184 slug/ft3 PR=TR* V
40 Power Available
propeller hpA=L*bhp
42
Example 6.4
Find maximum velocity for CP-1 at sea level and for the CJ-1 at 22,000 ft CP-1 horsepower rating at sea level 230hp, propeller efficiency 0.8
hpA=L*bhp=0.8*230=184 hp, map on PR graph, Vmax=265 ft For CJ-1, hpA=(TA* V)/550 Thrust is proportional (also power) to V/V0; V0=0.002377, V(at 22,000ft)=0.001184 hpA, alt=(0.001184/0.002377)(3650*2) (V)/550=6.61 V
V0 ! Valt !
2W , V 0 SC L 2W , VSC L V0 V ,
PR ,0 ! PR ,alt !
2 2W 3C D 3 V 0 SC L 2 2W 3C D 3 VSC L
Valt ! V0
PR ,alt ! PR ,0
V0
46 Propeller
At higher altitude, power available drops and maximum velocity reduces
Jet
At higher altitude, slope of the power available drops and maximum velocity reduces
48 H.W. 3 : Example 6.5 Obtain PR curve at sea level converting from the 22,000ft altitude Sea level
22,000 ft
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Rate of Climb
L=W cos U
L and D is smaller during climbing than level flight (lower induced drag)
[TV-
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Excessive Power
Propeller-driven
jet-driven
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Gliding Flight
L=W cos U D=W sin U D/L=sin Ucos U tan U=1/(L/D) Higher L/D, shallow glide angle, long distance
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Example 6.7 CP-1 power-off glide from 10,000ft. Find the maximum range and glide angle; maximum L/D=13.6
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Example 6.8 CJ-1 power-off glide from 10,000ft. Find the maximum range and glide angle; maximum L/D=16.9
U=tan -1[1/(L/D)]= tan -1[1/16.9]=3.390 R=h/tan U!h*(L/D)=169,000ft=32mi Higher L/D gives longer range
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Example 6.8 CP-1 power-off glide from 10,000ft and 2000ft each. Find the equilibrium glide velocity. maximum L/D=13.6
Angle and range; L/D
2 4.2 0 16.95 cos From 2,000ft Vg ! ! 154.3 ft / s 0.0022409 0.634 CL; from max L/D calculation
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At Absolute Ceiling
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Time to Climb
The faster, the better; fighter; civil airline clear congested traffic area and to better weather condition sooner dh=(R/C)dt
dh t! R 0 C
h2
64 H.W.6 : Example 6.11 Find time required to climb to 20,000 ft for CP-1, and CJ-1
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Range and Endurance Range; total distance (measured wrt ground) traversed by the airplane on a tank of fuel Endurance; total time that an airplane stays in the air on a tank of fuel The parameters are different for maximizing endurance and range; also different for propeller and jet
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Specific fuel consumption Weight of fuel consumed per unit power per unit time SFC=(lb of fuel)/(bhp*h)
Note: for jet use TSFC (Thrust specific fuel consumption)
(lb of fuel)/h SFC*hpR Minimum pounds of fuel per hour maximum endurance; occurs at minimum power required condition; CL3/2 /CD
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Maximum endurance occurs when the airplane is flying at a velocity such that CL3/2 /CD is maximum (lb of fuel)/(h* V) (SFC*hpR)/ V (lb of fuel)/(mi) (SFC*hpR)/ V (lb of fuel)/(mi) maximum range hpR/V tangential line of PR curve maximum CL/CD Maximum range occurs when the airplane is flying at a velocity such that CL/Cd is maximum
Max CL/Cd
SFC ! c !
lb fuel
ft * lb / s s
SFC ! c !
lb fuel
ft * lb / s s
cPVg dt ! Vg d fuel
! Vg dW lb Vg dW Vg dt ! ds ! cP Vg dW ds ! R ! w cP 0 l
R w0
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Level flight
w
w0
w0
L CL R! c CD
w0
dW L CL W0 W ! c CD ln W1 wl
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Level flight
w0
E!
w0
Vg !
w0
E!
L CL c CD wl
3 L CL / 2 Vg S 1 / 2 W0 ! 2 W Wl c CD 2 3 L CL / 2 ! 2 V g S 1/ 2 Wl 1/ 2 W0 1/ 2 c CD
74 H.W. 7 : Example 6.12 estimate the maximum range and maximum endurance for the CP-1
0.8 2950 L CL W0 R! ln 13.62 ln ! 7 c C D W1 2.27 *10 2583 c ! 0.45lb fuel / hp * h
! 0.45 ! 2.27 *10 7 ft 1 550 * 3600 3 CL CL / 2 From example 6.1 ! 13.62, max ! 12.81 max C C D D R ! 6.38 *106 ft ! 1207 mi
3 L CL / 2 2 V g S
1/ 2 Wl 1/ 2 W0 1/ 2 E! c CD
0.8 1/ 2 12.812 * 0.002377 *174 25831/ 2 29501/ 2 7 2.27 *10 ! 5.19 *10 4 s ! 14.4h !
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CL max C ! 13.62 D
3 CL / 2 max C ! 12.81 D
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flight)
Weight of fuel consumed per unit thrust per unit time TSFC = (lb of fuel)/(lb of thrust*h) (lb of fuel)/h TSFC*TA Endurance of jet TA (equals TR for level Minimum thrust of jet; at maximum L/D (lb of fuel)/(h*V) (TSFC* TA)/ V (lb of fuel)/(mi) (TSFC* TA)/ V
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(lb of fuel)/(mi) maximum range minimum (TA /V) tangential line of TR curve TR /V= D /V=( V V2 S CD)/ V= V V S CD V = (2W/ V S CL)1/2 TR /V= V S(2W/ V S CL)1/2CD TR /V 1/[CL1/2/CD] Flight at the maximum [CL1/2/CD] gives maximum range
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CL1/2/CD
L/D
TSFC ! c !
lb fuel
lbthrust
s
Multiply W up and down, TA=TR=D, W=L
dW 1 L dW dt ! E ! w ctTA ! w ct D W 0 l l 1 C L W0 E! ln ct C D Wl
Minimum ct, maximum fuel, max CL/CD
w0
Vg dW ds ! Vg dt ! ctTA
R w0 w0
Level flight
2W C L dW V g SCL ct C DW
Min ct, max fuel, CL1/2/CD ,High altitude
81 H.W. 8 : Example 6.13 estimate the maximum range and maximum endurance for the CJ-1
1 CL C L/ 2 max C ! 16.9, max C ! 23.4 D D From example 0 .6 ct ! 0.6 lb fuel / lb fuel * h ! ! 1.667 *10 4 s 1 3600 1 2 C L/ 2 1 (W01/ 2 Wl1/ 2 ) R!2 V g S C D ct
6.1
2 1 23.4 !2 ( 19815 12352 ) 4 0.001184 * 318 1.667 *10 ! 19.2 *106 ft ! 3630mi
82 H.W. 8 : Example 6.13 estimate the maximum range and maximum endurance for the CJ-1
Ex
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Takeoff performance
F=ma=mdV/dt; dV=(F/m)dt V=(F/m)t or t=Vm/F ds=Vdt=(F/m)tdt s=(F/m)(t2/2)= (V2m)/(2F) Rolling resistance R=Qr(W-L) F=T-D-R=T-D- Qr(W-L)=mdV/dt
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1 V gVg2 SC L 2 2 1 CL 2 D ! V gVg S C D ,0 J 2 TeAR L!
16h / b
2 J! 2 1 h / b
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J ground effect; air cushion, or float; tendency to flare
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Takeoff performance
V 2m V 2 (W / g ) s! ! 2F 2 T ?D Q r L Aavg W
A
Lift off speed=1.2 stall speed
2W V g SC L max
?D Q r W L
Aavg ! ?D Q r W L
A0.7V
s LO 1.44W 2 ! gV g SC L maxT
LO
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Takeoff performance
sLO
1.44W ! gV g SC L maxT
Distance is very sensitive to the Weight As T is proportional to density, distance is proportional to 1/V2 (hot day at higher airport needs longer runway) Increase CLmax, and T can decrease s
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Take-off Speed
Vs; stalling speed Vmc; minimum control system; if a critical engine fails, the airplane is able to maintain straight flight at that speed with zero yaw or with a bank angle of less than 50. At these conditions at this speed, the required rudder force may not exceed 180 lb.
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Take-off speeds
V1; the critical engine failure speed; the average pilot could safely continue with the takeoff in the event of a critical engine failure VR; takeoff rotation speed; equal to V1 or 5% higher than Vmc, the pilot rotates the airplane; keep on accelerating
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Take-off speeds
Vmu; minimum unstick speed; the pilot could lift the airplane off the runway and continue takeoff, even with one engine inoperative, without any hazardous characteristics. VLOF; 10% higher than Vmu for extra safety V2; takeoff speed (can clear 35 ft above ground obstacles); 1.2 Vs or 1.1 Vmc
92 Landing Performance
D Q r L
! m W dV dt
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Landing performance
V 2m VT2 (W / g ) s! ! W 2F 2?D Q r L
A .7VT 0 VT ! 1.3Vstall ! 1.3 2W V g SC L max
W L
! m dV TR D Q r
dt
2
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Example 6.18
Estimate the landing ground roll distance for the CJ-1 at sea level Assume no thrust reversal, spoilers employed so L=0, but increase 10% of zero-lift drag coefficient, empty feul tank, CLmax=2.5 with flaps fully employed
95 Example 6.18
VT ! 1.3 2W 2 *12352 ! 1.3 0.002377 * 318 * 2.5 V g SC L max 0.7VT ! 104 ft / s
VT ! 148.6 ft / s
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g n2 1
g n2 1 [! Vg
V=R[
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Pull-up maneuver
When L > W, pull up Fr=L-W=W(n-1)
W Vg2 Fr ! W n 1
! g R Vg2 R! g n 1
g n 1
[! Vg
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Pull-down maneuver
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1 2L V gVg2 SC L , Vg2 ! V g SC L 2
Insert V n=L/W
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V-n Diagram
Wing loading (W/S); F-15; 66, F-16; 74, Beech craft Bonanza 18.8
Rmin W 2 ! V g C Lmax g S
nmax; structural V g C L ,max nmax max ! g constraint, stall; 2W S see V-n diagram 1 V gVg2 SC L 1 L 2 2 C L , max , n max ! V gVg n! ! W 2 W W S 2nmax W Corner velocity; min R V* ! V g C L ,max S
max [n
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V-n diagram
Maneuver point
Corner velocity
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Maneuver banned during WWII AFIT later could explain in energy terms Total A/C energy=PE+KE=mgh+mv2 Specific energy He (energy height) He=(PE+KE)/W He=h+V2/2g Differentiate with t dHe/dt=dh/dt+(V/g)dV/dt
dV W dV T D W sin U ! m ! dt g dt
Multiple V/W on both 1 dV T D ! W sin U sides g dt TV DV excess power V dV ! ! Ps ! V sin U W W g dt V sin U ! R / C ! dh / dt
Ps !
dh V dV dt g dt
Ps=dHe/dt
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Time rate of change of energy height dHe/dt=dh/dt+(V/g)dV/dt=Ps Pilot can use excessive power to obtain rate of climb or acceleration or both Example excessive power =Ps=300 ft/s while flying at 800 ft/s
Pilot can climb at 300 ft/s = dh/dt Use for acceleration; Ps=(V/g)dV/dt; 300*32.2/800=dV/dt=12.1 ft2/s Or combination of climb and acceleration
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