BLOOD

PRESENTED BY

ME LEONG WENG TUCK

PHYSICAL & HEALTH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT IPDA

BLOOD

Blood is the river of life that surges within us, transporting nearly everything that must be carried from one place to another. Blood circulation, which is initiated by the pumping action of the heart starts the ball rolling Blood exits the left heart via arteries, which branch repeatedly until they become tiny capillaries. By diffusing across the capillary walls, oxygen and nutrients leave the blood and enter the body tissues, and carbon dioxide and waste move from the body tissues in the bloodstream. As oxygen-deficient blood leaves the capillary beds, it flows into veins, which return it to the right heart to be pumped to the lungs, where it pick up oxygen and return to the left heart to be pumped throughout the body once again.

BLOOD COMPOSITION & FUNCTIONS

Blood is the only fluid tissue in the body. It has both cellular and liquid component. It is a specialized type of connective tissue living blood cells, the formed elements, are suspended in a nonliving fluid matrix called PLASMA. When a sample of blood is spun in a centrifuge most of the reddish mass at the bottom of the tube is erythrocytes, the red blood cells and the thin, whitish layer called the buffy coat is present at the erythrocyte-plasma junction. This layer contains leukocytes, the white blood cells and platelets, cell fragments that help stop bleeding 45% of the total blood are erythrocytes known as hematocrit, leukocytes 1% and the remaining 55% are plasma

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTIC

Blood is a sticky, opaque fluid with a characteristic metallic taste. Depending on the amount of oxygen it is carrying, the color of blood varies from SCARLET OXYGEN RICH to DARK RED OXYGEN POOR Blood is more dense than water & about 5 times more viscous Blood is slightly alkaline, with a pH between 7.35 and 7.45 and its temperature is always slightly higher than body temperature 38oC Blood accounts for approximately 8% of body weight. Its average volume in healthy male is 5 6 L and healthy adult female 4 5 L

FUNCTIONS

DISTRIBUTION : distribution functions of blood include:

Delivering oxygen from lungs & nutrients from the digestive tract to all the body cells. Transporting metabolic waste products from cells to elimination sites ( to lung carbon dioxide, Kidney nitrogenous waste & urine Transporting hormones from the endocrine organs to their target organs. Maintaining appropriate body temperature by absorbing and distributing heat throughout the body and to the skin surface to encourage heat loss. Maintaining normal pH in body tissues. Many blood proteins & other bloodborne solutes act as buffers to prevent excessive ar abrupt changes in blood pH that could jeopardized normal cell activities

REGULATION : regulatory functions of blood include

Additionally, blood acts as the reservoir for the bodys alkaline reserve of bicarbonate atoms. Maintaining adequate fluid volume in the circulatory system. Salts and blood protein acts to prevent excessive fluid loss from the bloodstream to the tissue spaces Preventing blood loss. When a blood vessel is damaged, platelets, and plasma protein initiate clot formation, halting blood loss Preventing infection. Drifting along the blood are antibodies, complement protein, and white blood cells, all of which help defend the body against foreign invaders such as bacteria and viruses.

PROTECTION: Protective functions include:

BLOOD PLASMA

Blood plasma is a straw-colored, sticky fluid mostly water Plasma contains over 100 different dissolved solutes including nutrients, gases, hormones, wastes & products of cell activity, ions and protein. Plasma proteins, accounting for about 8% by weight of plasma volume most abundant plasma solutes Except for hormones & gamma globulins, most plasma proteins are produced by the liver. Albumin accounts for some 60% of plasma protein and acts as a carrier to shuttle certain molecule through the circulation, an important buffer and is the major blood protein contributing to the plasma osmotic pressure

The makeup of plasma varies continuously as cells remove or add substances to the blood. When blood protein levels drop undesirably, the liver makes more proteins and when the blood starts to become too acidic, both the respiratory system and kidneys are called into action to restore plasmas normal, slightly alkaline pH In addition to transporting various solutes around the body, plasma distribute heat throughout the body. Plasma consists of 90% water and 8 % solute by weight mainly protein like Albumin, Globulins Alpha & Beta, Globulin Gamma, Clotting proteins and others

FORMED ELEMENTS

The formed elements of blood consists of erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets and they have some unusual features:

1. Two of the three are not even true cells: Erythrocytes have no nuclei or organelles, and platelets are cell fragments. Only leukocytes are complete cells 2. Most survive in the bloodstream for only a few days 3. Most blood cells do not divide but are continuously renewed by division of cells in bone marrow. Erythrocytes vastly outnumber the white blood cells and platelets

ERYTHROCYTES

ERYTHROCYTES or RED BLOOD CELLS (RBC) are small cells, 7.5 um in diameter. Shaped like biconcave disc-flattened disc with depressed thin centers that is lighter in color than their edges. They look like miniature doughnuts Mature erythrocytes are bound by a plasma membrane, with no nucleus and organelles but have little more than bags of hemoglobin (Hb) the RBC protein that function as gas transport. Also present are antioxidant enzymes. The shape of an erythrocyte is maintain by a network of proteins, especially one called SPECTRIN which is deformable, it gives RBC flexibility to twist, turn & become cup shaped when carried passively.

RBC picks up oxygen in the capillary beds of the lungs and release it to tissues cells across other capillaries. It also transport 20% of the carbon dioxide released by tissue cells back to the lungs. Each erythrocyte structural characteristic contributes to its gas transport functions:

1. Its small size and biconcave shape provide a huge surface area relative to volume. 2. Discounting water content, an erythrocyte is over 97% hemoglobin, the molecule that binds to and transport respiratory gases 3. Because it lack mitochondria and generate ATP by anaerobic mechanisms, they do not consume any of the oxygen they are transporting, making them very efficient oxygen transporter.

Erythrocytes are the major factor contributing to blood viscosity. Women have a lower RBC count 4.3 5.2 million cells per cubic mm than men 5.1 5.8 million. When the number of RBC increase viscosity rise and blood flow slowly and when it drop blood thins & flows rapidly.

FUNCTION

Erythrocytes are completely dedicated to respiratory gas transport (Oxygen & carbon dioxide) Hemoglobin, the protein that makes RBC red, binds easily and reversibly with oxygen. Normal values for hemoglobin are 14 20 g per 100ml of blood (g/100 ml) in infants, 13 18 g/100ml in male and 12 16g/100 ml in female Hemoglobin is made up of the protein globulin bound to the red heme pigment. Globulin consists of 4 polypeptide chains 2 alpha and 2 beta each bound to a ringlike heme group Each heme group bears an atom of iron in its center & each iron atom can combine reversibly with 1 molecule of oxygen, a hemoglobin molecule can transport 4 molecule of O2. A single RBC contains about 250 million hemoglobin molecule

Hemoglobin is contained in erythrocytes, rather than existing free in plasma, prevents it:

1. From breaking into fragments that would leak out of the bloodstream 2. from contributing to blood viscosity and osmotic pressure.

Oxygen loading occurs in the lungs and the direction of transport is lungs to tissue cells As oxygen0deficient blood moves through the lungs, oxygen diffuses from the air sacs of the lungs into the blood and then into the erythrocytes, where it binds to hemoglobin. When it binds to iron, the hemoglobin is called OXYHEMOGLOBIN assumes a new 3-dimensional shape and become ruby red

In the tissues, oxygen detaches from iron and hemoglobin resumes its former shape and the resulting DEOXYHEMOGLOBIN or reduced hemoglobin becomes dark red. About 20% carbon dioxide transported in blood combines with hemoglobin but it binds to globins amino acids rather than with the heme group forming CARBAMINOHEMOGLOBIN. Carbon dioxide loading occurs in the tissues and the direction is tissues to lungs.

LEUKOCYTES

LEUKOCYTES or WHITE BLOOD CELLS (WBCs) are the only formed elements that are complete cells, with nuclei & usual organelles. Accounting for less than 1 % of total blood volume & on average, there are 4800 10800 WBCs per cubic mm. Leukocytes are crucial to our defense against disease White blood cells can slip out of the capillary blood vessels a process called DIAPEDESIS and the circulatory system is their means of transport to areas where they are needed. Once out of the bloodstream, leukocytes move through the tissue space by AMOEBOID MOTION. By following chemical trail of molecule released by damage cells or other leukocytes a phenomenon called POSITIVE CHEMOTAXIS they can pinpoint and gather in large numbers at area of tissue damage and infection to destroy foreign substances

Whenever WBCs are mobilized for action, the body speeds up their production and twice the amount may appear. A WBCs count of over 11000 cells per cubic mm is LEUKOCYTOSIS a normal homeostatic response to infection Leukocytes are grouped into 2 major categories on the basis of structural & chemical characteristic Listing leukocytes in order from most abundant to least abundant Neutrophils, Lymphocytes, Monocytes, Eosinophils and Basophils.

1.

GRANULOCYTES
Include neutrophils, basophils and eosinophils are roughly spherical in shape. They are larger and much shorter lived than erythrocytes and have lobed nuclei with membrane-bound cytoplasmic granules stain All granulocytes are phagocytes

2. NEUTROPHILS

The most numerous of the WBCs account for 50 70% of WBC population. Neutrophils are about twice as large as erythrocytes Ita cytoplasm stains pale lilac and has very fine granules They are called neutrophil because their granules take up both basic (blue) and acidic (red) dyes Some of these granules contain hydrolytic enzymes. Others contain a potent brew of antibiotic-like protein called DEFENSINS Because nutrophils nuclei are variable they are often called polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) Neutrophils are chemically attracted to sites of inflammation and are active phagocytes. They are especially partial to bacteria and some fungi, and bacterial killing is promoted by RESPIRATORY BURST.

In respiratory burst, oxygen is actively metabolized to produce potent germ-killer oxidizing substances such as bleach and hydrogen peroxide Account for 2 4 % of all leukocytes and approxinately the size of neutrophils Their deep red nucleus resembles an old-fashiones telephone receiver and has 2 lobes connected by a broad band of nuclear material Large, coarse granules are lysosome-like and filled with digestive enzymes that specifically digest bacteria. The most important role is to lead the counterattack against parasitic worms like flatworm and roundworms that invade through ingested food and via skin Eosinophils also lessen the severity of allergies

EOSINOPHILS

BASOPHILS

Basophils are the rarest WBC, averaging only 0.5 1 % and are slightly smaller than neutrophil Their cytoplasm contains large, coarse histamine-containing granules that have an affinity for basic dyes and stained purplish-black Granulated cells similar to basophils, called mast cells are found in connective tissue and bind to a particular antibody that causes the cells to release histamine

AGRANULOCYTES

Include lymphocytes and monocytes, WBC that lacks visible cytoplasmic granules

LYMPHOCYTES Accounting for 25% or more of the WBC population second most numerous leukocytes in the blood. It has a large, dark-purple nucleus that is usually spherical. Lymphocytes diameter ranges from 5 to 17 um Most of them are enmeshed in lymphoid tissues where they play a crucial role in immunity. T lymphocytes function in the immune response while B lymphocytes give rise to plasma cells which produce antibodies

MONOCYTES

Monocytes account for 3 8 % of WBC and have an average diameter of 18 um and are the largest leukocytes They have abundant pale-blue cytoplasm and a darker staining purple nucleus which is u or kidney shaped They differentiate into highly mobile marcophages Platelats are not cells, they are cytoplasmic fragments of extraordinarily large cells called MEGAKARYOCYTES In blood smears, each platelet exhibits a blue-staining outer regions and an inner area containing granules that stain purple. The granules contain serotonin, CA2+, enzymes, ADP and platelets-derived growth factors (PDGF)

PLATELETS

Platelets are essential for the clotting process that occur in the plasma. By sticking to the damaged site, platelets form a temporary plug that helps seal the break. Because platelets are anucleate, they age quickly and degenerate in about 10 days when not involved in clotting. Platelets formation is regulated by a hormone called THROMBOPOIETIN.

HUMAN BLOOD GROUPS

People have different blood types and transfusion of incompatible blood can be fatal. RBC plasma membranes bear highly specific glycoproteins ( antigen) at their external surfaces. Since these RBC antigens promote agglutination, they are more specifically called agglutinogens The ABO blood groups are based on the presence or absence of 2 agglutinogens, type A and type B. A person ABO blood group will be one of the following A, B, AB, or O. The O blood group, which has neither agglutinogen, is the most common ABO group The presence of either the A or the B agglutinogen results in group A or B

ABO BLOOD GROUPS