NOUN VOCABULARY

ARUM SEKAR JANNATI RATNA PEPRIYANA SUMAYYAH AHMAD RIA AFRIYANTI

Overview

Noun forms a majority of the words in the vocabulary of English. In contrast to the unidimensional meanings of adjectives explored in Chapter , nouns typically denote rich, highly interconnected complexes of properties (Cruse 2000: 289)

The has-relation
For many word, however, we can oly be sure that all the parts are there if the has-relation is stated in termns of prototypes. Prototypes are clear, central members of the deniotation of a word.

A prototype face has two eyes A prototype face has a nose A prototype face has a mouth A prototype face has a roof A prototype face has a door A prototype face has windows Restricted to prototypes, the has-relation makes available entailments

Theres a house at the cornerr if it is like a prototype for house then it has a roof The child drew a face if the face was prototypical, then the child drew a mouth

Pragmatic inferences from the has-relation

The has-relation, restricted to prototypes, is the basis for some of our pragmatic expectation i language usa. This can be seen in a switch from indefinite to definite articles. A noun prhase that first brings something into a conversation is usually indefinite (for example, marked by means of an indefinte article, a or an) but on the second and subsequent mention of the same thing in the conversation it will be referred to by means of a definite noun phrase (ma rked by, for example, the definite article the) A. IVe bought a house. B. Where is the house? (not: Where is a house) C. (a child showing of a drawing): I drawed a face. D. (respomding to the child and commenting on the drawing): I like the face you drew. (not: I like a face you drew.)

Parts can have parts

Words denoting wholes bear the has-relation to the lables for their parts, bnut the parts can, in turn, have parts, and a whole can be a part of a larger whole.

Spatial parts
A prototypes things, such as rock can be said to have a top, a bottom (or base), sides and a front and back. A things having spatial poarts, making the posession of such parts characteristic of prototypes in the thing-category. The other notable fearture of spatial part words is thaht they are often deictic. The meaning of a deictic word is tied to the situation of utterance.

Having inherent spatial parts

people houses Trees (top, base, sides)

Having patial part only deictically

balls Planets (in the talk of amateurs looking through a telescope) Trees (front, back)

Hills (top, base, sides)

Animals pianos

Hills (front, back)

Some other parts

The body is a source of metapohors, for instance lose ones head, meaning panic. The has-relation applies between various words denoting body parts. Person is ambigous word denoting either a phsycal person who can, for instance, be big or ugly or the phsycological individual who can be kind or silly. In Chapter 1 it was pointed out that semnavtic description is different from the compilation of an encyclopedia. Semanctics is not an attempt to catalogue all human knowledge. Instead, semantictists aim to describe the knowledge about meaning that language users have simply because the are users of the language.

Hyponymy
Hyponymy is concerned with the labelling of sub categories of a words denotation. A hyponym is a subordinate, specific term whose referent is included in the referent of super ordinate term.

E.g. Blue, Green are kinds of color. They are specific colors and color is a general term for them. Therefore, color is called the super ordinate term, and blue, red, green, yellow, etc are called hyponyms.

Hierarchies of hyponyms
Thing Structure a superordinate of structure
hyponym of thing;superordinate of building

Building

hyponym of structure ; superordinate of house

house

hyponym of building

Hyponym is the meaning of its immediate superordinate elaborated by a modifier

Hyponym and the has relation

Thing
superordinate of structure; has a top, base, front, back and sides

Structure Building

hyponym of thing; superordinate of building;

has connection
hyponym of structure;superordinate of house; has walls and a roof

house

hyponym of building; has bedroom(s) and kitchen

Hyponym and the has relation

A final point about interactions between has relation and hyponymy, it must be ponted out that part words can enter directly into superordinate and hyponym relations.

a. b. c.

This is Nameeras breakfast This is Nameeras lunch This is Nameeras dinner

d. (a (b (c e. (a (b (c

NOT b) & (a NOT a) & (b NOT a) & (c NOT b) & (a NOT c) & (c NOT b) & (c

NOT c) & NOT c) & NOT b) NOT c) & NOT a) & NOT b)

A semantic relation called incompatibility holds between the hyponyms of a given superordinate:
Hyponym is about classification: breakfast, lunch and dinner are kinds of meal. Incompatibility is about contrast: breakfast, lunch and dinner are different from each other within the category of meals, they are eaten at different times of day.

Further points about incompatibility

The relation of antonym. There are entailments from affirmative to negative sentences containing the antonym, but not from negative sentences to the corresponding affirmatives. e.g. a long ladder is not short and a short ladder is not long. Antonyms holds between many pairs of adjectives (or adverbs). It would be correct to say that long and short are incompatible, but, as most semanticists use the special term antonym for incompatibility between pairs of adjectives (or adverbs), it is easier to keep with tradition. When adjectives occur in larger sets than pairs then the appropriate term for the relation holding within the set is incompatibility.

Synonym is an exception to the generalisation that hyponims of a given superordinate are incompatible with each other. E.g: Seat: chair, bench, stool, sofa, settee. The relation of incompatibility holds between most of them. a. Hazel is sitting on a chair

b. c. d. e. f.

Hazel is sitting on a bench, stool, sofa or settee Hazel is sitting on a sofa Hazel sitting on a settee (a NOT <at the moment> b) (c d)

Hyponyms of a word immediately superordinate to them are not only incompatible with each other but are also incompatible with hyponyms of their higherlevel superordinates.

Superordinate Drinking vessel Glass Cup Mug

Hyponyms Glass, cup, mug Wineglass, martini glass, tumbler Coffee cup, tea cup Coffee mug, beer mug

Count Nouns
These nouns are names of people, places, things that we can count. People use also the word "countable" instead of "count" to refer to these nouns. Can be put numerals one, two, three,... etc. before these nouns (e.g. one book, two villages, seven dwarfs. twelve apostles) Examples: book, villages, dwarfs,

Mass Nouns
These are names of uncountable things of things we look upon as one big mass Instead of the word mass in naming these nouns, you may use also the words uncountable or non-count. Cannot be put numerals one, two, three,... etc. before these nouns (two waters, three milks, or five furnitures) Examples: (e.g. water, milk, wood, furniture, information, etc.)