Stress Preliminaries

Invariants of the Cauchy Stress

0 =
-
-
-
: equation stic characteri the
solving by obtained are tensor stress the of values principal The
=
- - - + + =
+ + =
(matrix) tensor Stress Cauchy the of Invariants The
3
2 2 2
2
1






I
I
I
zz zy zx
yz yy yx
xz xy xx
zz zy zx
yz yy yx
xz xy xx
zx xz xy zz xx zz yy xx xx
zz yy xx
Principal values and principal
directions
(
(
(

=
=
= +
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2
2
1
3

: matrix orthogonal an form e column wis arranged ors eigen vect The

: problem e eigen valu the solving by
obtained be can directions eigen or principal the stress, principal each For
0 - -
: Invariants the of in terms written be can equation stic characteri The
z z z
y y y
x x x
i
i
i
n n n
n n n
n n n

I I I
R
n n
o o o
Principal values and principal
directions
I S
S I
S
R R
p I p
p
p

T
zz zy zx
yz yy yx
xz xy xx
= + + = =
+ =
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

and ) (
3
1
3
1
where

: ) ( stress deviatoric
a and ) ( pressure c hydrostati a into decomposed be can tensor stress The

: form following in the components principal
its of in terms d represente be can (matrix) tensor stress cauchy The
3 2 1 1
3
2
1
o o o
o
o
o
o o
o o
o o
Invariants of the deviatoric stress
tensor
tensor. stress Cauchy the of directions principal the as
same the are tensor stress deviatoric the of directions principal the Thus
) ( ) (
relation e satisfy th tensor stress deviatoric the of values principal The

) -(
)] ( 2 ) [(
2
1
2
) (

0
: by given are tensor stress deviatoric the of invariants The
) ( ) ( ) (
33 22 11 3
33 11 33 22 22 11
33 11 33 22 22 11
2
33 22 11
2
33
2
22
2
11
2
33 22 11 1
i
i
i i
p p
S S S J
S S S S S S
S S S S S S S S S
S S S
J
S S S J
n n I n S = =
=
+ + =
+ + =
+ +
=
= + + =
o
Invariants of the deviatoric stress
tensor

) 27 9 2 (
27
1

) 3 (
3
1

: as tensor stress Cauchy the of invariants the to related are
tensor stress deviatoric the of invariants third and second the addition, In
3
2

3
2

3
2

: as tensor stress Cauchy the of values principal the to related
therefore are tensor stress deviatoric the of values principal The
3 2 1
3
1 3
2
2
1 2
2 1 3
3
3 1 2
2
3 2 1
1
I I I I J
I I J
S
S
S
+ =
=

=

=

=
o o o
o o o
o o o
Octahedral plane


family
in the plane each origin to the from distance lar perpendicu the is where
3
: are equations whose planes octahedral of families eight thus are There
3
1
3
1
3
1
: yields This
, 1
: equations e satisfy th must
normals the ), , , ( by given is normal unit the if plane, octahedral
each for Thus . tensor stress the of directions principal with the
angles equal makes normal whose plane a is plane octahedral An
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
2
3
2
2
2
1
3 2 1
C
C
n n n
n n n n n n
n n n
=
= = =
= = = + +
o o o

Octahedral plane


3
2

shown that be can it steps, te intermedia some After

: as defined is stress shear octahedral The

: as calculated is stress normal octahedral The
plane. on this stresses shear and normal define
to possible is it normal with plane octahedral an Given
2
2
2
2
J

oct
oct oct
oct
oct
oct
=
=
=
t
o n
n n.
n
Stress space
The Cauchy stress tensor has six independent
components.

Hence to represent a stress state geometrically, we need a
six dimensional space with the six independent
components as its coordinate axes.

To describe the multiaxial failure envelope for general
anisotropic materials, we have to work in the six
dimensional stress space.

This is because for anisotropic materials, the orientation of
the principal stress is as important as the magnitude of the
principal stress.
Stress space
However when the material is isotropic, the situation
simplifies considerably.

Since the material properties are the same in any direction,
only the magnitude of the principal stresses play any role
in describing the failure surface.

Therefore we only need a three-dimensional stress space
using the three principal stresses as the coordinate axes.

This stress space is called the Haigh-Westergaard stress
space.
Haigh Westergaard stress space
In this space, every point with coordinates
represents a stress state with these principal stresses.

Two stress states having the same principal stresses but
different principal directions is not distinguishable in this
space.

Recall that each stress state can be split into a
hydrostatic and deviatoric component. This decomposition
can be geometrically represented in a convenient manner
in the principal stress space.


) , , (
3 2 1

Hydrostatic axis
Recall we defined the octahedral planes to be families of 8
planes each of whose normals made equal angles with
each of the principal directions.

In the principal stress space therefore, the normal to each
octahedral plane would form equal angles with the
axes.

We consider one of these 8 normals, specifically the
normal with direction cosines i.e. the normal
that lies in the positive octant.

All stress states that lie on this diagonal satisfy the
conditions



3 2 1
and ,
)
3
1
,
3
1
,
3
1
(
0 and
3
1

3 2 1 1 3 2 1
= = = = = = S S S I
The plane
In other words along this line all stress states represent a
state of pure hydrostatic pressure. Hence this line is called
the hydrostatic axis in the stress space.

The planes normal to this axis are of course the octahedral
planes with equations where C is the
perpendicular distance from the origin to the plane


The octahedral plane passing through the origin i.e. with
C=0 is known as the plane.

Each of these planes contain all possible stress states with
the same hydrostatic pressure C. Thus the plane
contains all possible stress states with zero hydrostatic
pressures





3
3 2 1
C = + + o o o
3
Projection along hydrostatic axis
Any stress state , represented by an unique
vector in the principal stress space, can be decomposed
into two components, one of which lie along the hydrostatic
axis, and another on one of the family of octahedral planes
normal to the hydrostatic axis.

The projected component along the hydrostatic axis gives
the hydrostatic pressure part of the stress:



The stress vector left after projecting out the hydrostatic
component of the stress, which lies on an octahedral
plane, must be a purely deviatoric stress state.

) , , (
3 2 1
o o o
) , , ( )
3
1
,
3
1
,
3
1
)](
3
1
,
3
1
,
3
1
).( , , [( .
3 2 1
p p p = = o o o n n
Deviatoric planes
This can easily be seen from the following:

planes deviatoric as known are planes
these stress, of state deviatoric purely a to correspond 3
planes octahedral of family on the lie which vectors stress all Since
zero. to equal is , invariant first its hence and values, principal its
of sum the represent which , components its of sum the as stress of state
deviatoric purely a represents . vector stress the clear that is It
space. stress principal in the vector a as treated is where
) , , ( )
3
2
,
3
2
,
3
2
(
)
3
1
,
3
1
,
3
1
)](
3
1
,
3
1
,
3
1
).( , , [( ) , , ( .
3 2 1
1
3 2 1
3 2 1 3 2 1 3 2 1
3 2 1 3 2 1
C
I
S S S
= + +

=
+ +
=
=
o o o
o o o o o o o o o
o o o o o o
n n

n n
Hydrostatic axis, deviatoric plane

Hydrostatic axis
) , , (
3 2 1
o o o
Deviatoric component
Hydrostatic component
Deviatoric plane
through (
3 2 1
, , o o o )
The plane through
the origin
1
o
2
o
3
o
dev
s
Projection on deviatoric plane
The length of the projection vector on the deviatoric plane,
is given by:


To determine the orientation of this vector on the deviatoric
plane, we project the axes on the deviatoric
plane, denoting them as

The unit vector along the axis is denoted as . It
makes an angle of with the axis and equal
angles with the axes.

Thus this unit vector has direction cosines of




2
2
3
2
2
2
1
2J S S S r
dev
= + + = = s
3 2 1
and , o o o
3 2 1
and , o o o ' ' '
1
o
'
1
n
'

3
1
cos 90
1

1
o
3 2
ando o
) 1 , 1 , 2 (
6
1

dev
s
Projection on deviatoric plane
The projection of the vector in the direction is
given by:







The angle is known as the Lode angle.

The Lode angle , the length of the projection of the stress
vector in the deviatoric plane, r, and the length of its
projection on the hydrostatic axis, denoted by (equal to
) yield another parametrization of the stress state.




dev
s 1
n
'
2
1
1
3 2 1 1
2
3
cos in results This
axis the and between angle the is where
) 1 , 1 , 2 (
6
1
). , , ( cos .
J
S
S S S r
dev
dev
=
'
= =
'
u
u
u
n s
n s
3
3
1
I
p =
Lode Angle
1
o
'

120

120
u
u

120
2
o
'
3
o
'
dev
s
1
o
'
1
o
2
o
Hydrostatic
axis
o
) 90 ( o

Haigh Westergaard coordinates

This is a cylindrical coordinate system and each stress
point is represented by its (r, , z) = (r, , ) components.
The (r, , ) components can all be expressed in terms of
the invariants of and S.











60 0 condition the to leads This .
2
3 3
3 cos : get we
and 0 ), ( calling Re
). (
2
3 3
3 cos : can write we
, cos 3 cos 4 3 cos identity, the Using .
2
3
cos Recall,
: invariants the of in terms purely expressed be can too

3
, 2 : be shown to been already have and
3
2
3
2
3 2 1 3 3 2 1 1 3 3 2 2 1 2
2 1
3
1
2
3
2
3
2
1
1
2
s s =
= = + + + + =
=
= =
= =
u u
u
u u u u
u

J
J
S S S J S S S S S S S S S J
J S S
J
J
S

I
J r r
Haigh Westergaard coordinates

) , , (
3 2 1
o o o
1
o'
2
o
'
3
o'
u
r

Hydrostatic axis
An useful representation









6
3
6
2
) 1 , 2 , 1 (
6
1
). , , ( cos n .
: is) axis the along or unit vect (the n along of
component Then the ). 1 , 2 , 1 (
6
1
n obtain can we n obtain to
used argument same By the similarly. proceed we for expression
obtain the To obtained. been already has expression first The
) 120 cos(
3
2
, ) 120 cos(
3
2
, cos
3
2
: angle Lode the and tensor stress deviatoric the of invariants
the of in terms d represente be usefully can stresses principal The
2 3 2 1
3 2 1 2 2
dev
2 2
dev
2 1
2
2 3 2 2 2 1
S S S S
S S S r
S
J S J S J S
=
+
= = =
'
' '
=
' '
+ = = =
u
o
u u u
s
s

Lode angles for common stress
states








One can calculate the Lode angles for common stress
states encountered during laboratory testing.

We will consider three such stress states: the case of
uniaxial tension in the presence of hydrostatic pressure,
pure shear in the presence of hydrostatic pressure and
uniaxial compression in the presence of hydrostatic
pressure.


) 120 cos(
3
2
t shown tha be can it Similarly
. 120 since ) 120 cos(
3
2
cos
3
2
Hence,
. 2 But axis. the and between angle the is
2 3
2 2 2 2 2
2 2
dev
2
u
u u u u
o u
+ =
= = =
=
'

J S
J J S
J r s
Uniaxial tension + h.s. pressure











axis. e with th aligned is vector
the and zero to equal is case loading for this Hence
1
2
3
cos But
2
3
9
6
) ( 2 Then,
3
,
3
,
3
2
,
3
, ,
1
dev
2
1
1
2
2
1
2
3
2
2
2
1 2
3 2 1
3 2 1
o
u
u
o
o o
o
o
o o o o
'
= =
=
'
= + + =
'
=
'
=
'
=
'
+
'
=
'
=
'
=
'
+
'
=
s
J
S
S S S S J
S S S p p
p p p

p'
p'
p'
p'
+
o'
o'
Uniaxial comp. + h.s. pressure











. 60 to equal is case loading for this Hence
2
1
2
3
cos Therefore . 3 Hence,
6 ) (
9
6
) ( 2 Then,
3
2
,
3
,
3
,
3
, ,
2
1
1 2
1
2
2
1
2
3
2
2
2
1 2
3 2 1
3 2 1

u
u
o
o o
o
o o
o o o o
= = =
=
'
= + + =
'
=
'
=
'
'
=
'

'
=
'

'
=
'
=
'
=
J
S
S J
S S S S J
S S S p p
p p p

p'
p'
p'
p'
+
o'
o'
Pure shear under hydrostatic
pressure










30 to equal is case loading for this Hence
2
3
2
3
cos Hence
2 2 2 ) ( 2 Then,
, 0 , ,
, ,
2
1
1
2
2
1
2
3
2
2
2
1 2
3 2 1
3 2 1

u
u
t t
t t
t o o t o
= =
= = = + + =
= = =
'
=

'
=
'
= +
'
=
J
S
S S S S J
S S S p p
p p p

p'
p'
p'
p'
+
t
t
t
Triaxial stress states
Triaxial stress states encountered from laboratory testing
on cylinders have two principal stresses equal.

The third principal stress, aligned along the axis of the
cylinder is usually different.

Hence all such stress states lie in the plane, if the
loading axis is assumed to be aligned with the
direction.

Such planes are called rendulic planes. In the rendulic
plane two curves, described as meridians are of interest.

Along one of the curves, is always higher (more
compressive) than












2 1
o o =
3
o
3
o
2 1
o o =
Compressive and Tensile
meridians

Along the other meridian, is always lower (less
compressive) than

This curve is known as the tensile meridian.










3
o
2 1
o o =

2 1
o o =
3
o
Rendulic Plane
compressive
meridian
tensile
meridian
Multiaxial failure: Biaxial
compression
The micromechanics of failure in uniaxial compression can
be extended to the multiaxial case.

For example in biaxial compression, considering a
micromechanics model comprising rigid particles, it is clear
that if the compressive stress is sufficiently high, it
would counteract the wedge splitting forces caused by the
vertical stress

As a result of the confinement, the local splitting forces in
the direction are reduced.

Consequently a higher vertical stress must be
applied to counteract the effect of and cause failure.


2
o
1
o
1
o
1
o
2
o
Biaxial compression
Thus the failure stress in biaxial compression must be
higher than in uniaxial compression.

However the increase in failure load is only marginal. The
reason for this is that the 3 direction is still unconfined.

Splitting forces in the 3 direction are unopposed
therefore cracking is still relatively easy.

Thus particle heterogeniety, in combination with a simple
tensile/shear criterion for fracture, can be used to construct
the biaxial failure envelope.
Biaxial compression: Experiments
The biaxial failure envelope for concrete was first plotted
by Kupfer.

Specimens of sizes 200 x 200 x 50 mm were tested under
biaxial compression, with specially designed plattens with
brushes to reduce friction.

The tests were performed on concretes with different
uniaxial strengths: 19.1, 31.1 and 59.4 MPa

The shape of the biaxial curve was found to be about the
same for all these different mixes.
The Biaxial failure envelope
Biaxial compression: Maximum
increase
Under equibiaxial stress, , the strength increases by
about 15-20% compared to the uniaxial compressive
strength.

However the largest increase in strength is not for
equibiaxial loading. The largest increase occurs when the
ratio of the principal stresses is about .5 i.e. the
compressive stress applied in one direction is half the
compressive stress in the orthogonal direction.

In the tension-compression regime, the compressive
strength decreases sharply even with a small tensile
component.
2 1
o o =
Biaxial Tension Compression
Tension compression tests are harder to perform also
the data shows considerably more scatter than the results
of biaxial compression tests.

However, unlike in the biaxial compression regime, it is
clear that concrete quality has a greater influence in the
biaxial tension-compression regime.

For higher quality concretes, i.e. concretes with higher
uniaxial compressive strengths, the rate of decline in
compressive strength with tensile stress is higher.

This may seem counter-intuitive, since it is known that
tensile strength in concrete increases with compressive
strength.
Biaxial Tension Compression
But recall that empirical relationships predict:



Again, a microstructural explanation for this is lacking.
Increase in compressive strength implies reduction in
porosity, increased hydration in cement etc.

All of these appear to have an effect on the tensile
strength as well, but to a significantly lesser (hence the
square root) extent.

It seems to point to certain factors that are conducive to
tensile cracking that are not really affected the increase in
compressive strength.

c
c
t
c t
f
f
f
1

o
o
Effect of restraints on biaxial
strength
One such factor may be the weak planes that naturally
result from the casting process. However a clear
identification of these factors is lacking.

The tests by Kupfer were carried out using loading
plattens that were designed to reduce friction.

Some researchers have studied the effect of frictional
plattens on the biaxial failure envelope.

The results are as expected: unrestrained testing
(frictionless plattens) provide a lower bound to concrete
compressive strength.


Effect of load paths on biaxial
strength
Other researchers have investigated the influence of load
paths on biaxial strength.

For instance if the total load is applied in a monotonically
increasing fashion, or alternatively, if there is some
intermediate unloading prior to reloading, will the biaxial
strength be different?

The answer appears to be that the biaxial strength does
not depend on the load path unless there is appreciable
damage sustained to the specimen during the previous
loadings.

Triaxial tests on concrete
Triaxial testing on concrete started with the tests by
Richart in the late 1920s and they quickly revealed the
very different behavior of confined and unconfined
concrete.

However Richarts tests and many subsequent tests that
followed were not truly triaxial in nature, as they were
performed on concrete cylinders.

Fluid pressure was applied to the circumference of the
cylinder in a pressure cell and axial loading was applied
simultaneously in a compression machine.
Cylindrical testing vs. true triaxial
loading.
Since two of the principal stresses are always the same
the tests are not truly triaxial in nature.

The full triaxial stress space can only be explored by a
triaxial loading device.

In such situations, cubes rather than cylinders are used.

But cubes have the disadvantage that they are
susceptible to stress concentrations along the edges and
along the corners.

Moreover platten effects play a larger role in cubes than in
cylinders.


Cylindrical testing vs. true triaxial
loading.
True triaxial loading devices are expensive and are not
readily available.

Because of this, as well as the problems attendant to
testing with cubes, triaxial tests on cylinders subjected to
fluid pressures are still the most commonly adopted triaxial
test.

Since two of the stresses are always equal, only a single
plane in the triaxial stress space can be investigated with
cylinder tests.



Cylindrical testing: results for
stress states on a single plane



1
o
2
o
3
o
3
o
3
o
p =
1
o =
2
o
stress states only
on this plane